BASICS IN ARCHAEOLOGY

 *********Prepared by Aman Makoye***********

Topic 1: Introduction to archaeology

•         Defining Archaeology

•         Etymologically, the term archaeology has its origin from two Greek words, Archaeos which means “ancient” or “past” and Logos which means a “study”.

•         Functionally, the term archaeology can be defined as the systematic study of past human societies primarily through the recovering and analysis of material culture and environmental data which they have left behind.

•         Archeology is the study of human cultural and social past whose goals are to narrate the sequent story of the past and explain the events that composed it.

•         Thus archaeology is interested in both the objects made by the people of the past cultures and civilizations and why the people lived the way they did. To these goals, archaeologists excavate and analyze the remains and monument of past cultures and the context in which they are found

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•         Archaeologists study archaeological data in order to reconstruct, interpret and explain past culture. The data which archaeologists study consists of material remains of past human activity.

•         The remains are of different forms and may include broken bones, plant remains, pottery shred, ruined buildings, or large and complex buildings. These remains are to be found in an archaeological site, which is any place where physical remains of past human activities exist.

•         Archaeological data can be classified into four major categories, artifcats, features, ecofacts and structures.

•         Artifacts: are portable objects made, used or modified by humans. Examples of artifacts include stone tools, pottery, metal implements, and bone points. Archaeologists study and analyze these remains in order to obtain information about the people who made and used them. Finally archaeologists may come up with appropriate history of the early people.

•         Features: these are immovable objects such as post holes, irrigation furrows, ditches, pits and burials.

•         Structures: these are man constructed and immovable structures such as houses, temples, churches, mosque, granaries and other storage facilities.

•          Ecofacts: are non artifactual organic and environmental material remains that are not directly created or modified by man but have cultural relevance. Examples of ecofacts includes remnants of both wild and domesticated animals and plant species

•         Although they are neither directly created nor significantly modified by human activity, ecofacts provides appropriate information about past human activities. Animal , plant species and other ecofacts such as soils contribute to our understanding of the past because they reflect ancient environmental conditions, diet, and resource exploitation.

•         Sometimes, the line between ecofacts and artifacts is a bit ambiguous. For example, bones with cut marks from butchering might be considered artifacts (reflecting human technology) as well as ecofacts (yielding clues to the ancient environment).

•        Goals of archaeology

•         Archaeology is therefore a discipline which is concerned with the study of the remains of the past, otherwise referred to as the material culture of ancient or past societies. Hence it concerns with

–    Describing the evolution and development of past cultures and reconstruction of the cultural history of the societies concerned. This is done by studying sites and the material remains and other relevant data contained in such sites of human past settlements in time and space. The study and description of the distribution and pattern of archaeological sites, and ordering them in a chronological framework is therefore a major goal.

–    Conserving and managing archaeological sites. This is the fundamental responsibility of all archaeologists to ensure the conservation and survival of the finite/limited archaeological materials and sites

–    Studying past life ways, that is the ways in which people made their living in changing environment of the past. This has developed into a major goal in recent years. It involves the reconstruction of how people lived in the past and how their societies were organized.

•     Studying past life ways is a multidisciplinary enterprise which enables the reconstruction of ancient subsistence patterns  from animal bones, carbonized seeds, and other organic remains recovered thorough careful excavation. Archaeologist, pollen analysts,  botanists, zoologists, soil analysts, osteologist (bone analysts) etc, cooperate in looking at archeological sites in a much wider perspective. The aim is to look on changing patterns of human settlements, subsistence strategies, and ancient environment.

–    To explain the process of cultural change in the past. Another major goal for archaeology is to explain cultural change, process and evaluation. Archaeologists involved in this field therefore, aims at explaining why human culture in all parts of the world reached their various stages of cultural evolution. To achieve this there is a need to study past cultures not in a static way but as dynamic system which include both culture and the natural environment.

•     In other words, archaeologists should design their research so as to formulate and test hypotheses and finally draw generalization or laws to explain cultural changes. This approach in archaeology has been called New Archaeology/ Scientific Archaeology or Processual Archaeology

–    Understanding the archeological record. Archaeological record is made up of material objects/cultural remains/archaeological data and their arrangement in the soil. Binford relate archaeological data to a kind of untranslated language that has to be decoded if we are to make statements about human behavior in the past. Therefore, the aim of archeologists is to unlock people’s knowledge of the past people through the interpretation of material remains.

The scope of archaeology

•         The scope of archaeology is divided into two parts, that is time scope (temporal scope) and theme scope (thematic scope)

–    The temporal scope covers roughly the period from 2.5 million years ago ( the beginning of human culture) to the present. Temporal scope can be divided into :

•     Pre historic archaeology covering the period from 2.5 million years ago to 3000 BC. The period before written records

•     Historical archaeology covering the period from 3000 BC to the present. The period after written records.

–    The thematic scope/specializations refers to the different themes in archaeology. For example: Historic archaeology, Pre historic archaeology, Environmental archaeology, Classical archaeology, Industrial archaeology, and Under water archaeology.

•         Pre historic archaeology: this studies pre historic times from the time of the earliest human beings up to the frontiers of documentary history. That is to say from 2.5 million years ago to 3000BC. Generally, it was the study of the past before historical records began.

•         Historical archaeology: this refers to archaeological investigation carried out in conjunction with analysis of written records. It covers the period from 3000 BC up to the present.

•         Underwater archaeology: is the study of sites and ancient shipwreck on the seafloor and lake bottoms. The objective of underwater archaeology is to interpret and reconstruct past cultures through material remains of ancient human endeavor , in this case seafaring/maritime.

•         Industrial archaeology: is the study of buildings and other structures dating to the industrial revolution or later such as cotton plantations, machines, windmills, etc. anyone entering this field needs at least some training as an architectural historian.

•         Classical archaeology: is the study of the remains of the great classical civilizations of the ancient Greek and Rome.

•         Environmental archaeology: this is concerned with the reconstruction of the ancient environment (paleoenvironment)

TOPIC 2. ARCHAEOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES

•         Archaeology as a discipline which concerned itself wit the study of ancient cultures and the study of pre history, that is the study of the history of mankind before  the appearance of written records is related to a number of disciplines.

–    The study of material culture, its context and interpretation of the excavated artifacts which includes a variety of objects made from different materials as well as remains of food residues which might include bones of different animals, plant remains, pollens, etc, requires the assistance or participation of different types of experts such geologists, zoologists, botanists, etc.

–    Archaeologists also requires to reconstruct a time scale so as to enable them to order the recognized ancient culture into a chronological frame work.

–    To achieve all these, archaeology is therefore a multidisciplinary activity which requires the participation and contribution of a variety of disciplines and expertise.

•        Archaeology and history: pre- history has been defined as the history of mankind before the appearance of written documents. Pre-historic archaeology is the study, analysis, and interpretation of the material culture of pre historic society in order to describe and explain the history and culture of these societies. It can therefore be argued that archaeology is closely linked with history, for example;

–   the history of the earliest literate societies such as those of Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia and Rome heavily depends on archaeological excavations.

–   Even in the most  recent past, archaeology has been responsible and contributed to the study of written history through the study of artifacts and structures of such literate societies, this gave rise to the development of a new sub discipline of historical archaeology.

–   Also archaeology can be used to supplement and enrich data obtained through the collections, analysis and interpretation of oral traditions. For example Schmidt has used methods of historical archaeology in the study of the early history of the Kagera areas ( Schmidt 1978)

•         The main difference being the different techniques, methods, and sources used. For example:

–    While historians use written documents and oral traditions  the main source of information, archaeologist use material remains of he past artifacts, structures, and other related data.

–    These material remains are mute; their meaning and significances depend entirely on the inferences/conclusion that trained archaeologists can make. In contrast, these historical records contain messages that are direct and often deliberate communications from the past, although their meanings and significances are also subject to critical interpretation , to discover and get rid of exaggerations, lies, or other biases in written sources.

–    Another difference is found on the scope/coverage of the two disciplines. Archaeology covers the period from the beginning of human culture ( 2.5 m.y.a) to the present. For this case, archaeology is our primary source of information for 99% of human history, while history covers the period from the beginning of written records ( 3000 BC to the present)

•         Archaeology and Anthropology: archaeology is the study which is concerned with the scientific study of humanity in its widest sense. Anthropology study human beings as biological organisms and as people with culture. They therefore carry out researches on contemporary societies and on human developments from the very earliest times. Anthropology is therefore a very broad area of study and sub divided into a number of sub disciplines:

–    Physical anthropology: this is concerned with the study of human biological evolution and the variations among different populations (it tries to analyze physical human characteristics). Physical anthropology is also concerned with the study of the behavior of non human primates such as chimpanzee and the gorilla, in an attempt to understand and explain behavior among the earliest human beings. Physical anthropologists also use data obtained by primatologists who are concerned with the biological studies of non human primates.

–    Cultural or social anthropology: this is concerned with the study and analysis of human social life, both past and present. It is primarily concerned with the study of human culture and how culture adapts to the environment. There a number of special areas of study namely:

•     Ethnography; this is the study and description of the culture, technology and economy of living and extinct societies.

•     Ethnology; is a comparative study of societies with the objective of reconstructing general principles of human behavior.

–    Archaeology. Is a discipline which studies the material culture of ancient societies. The archaeologists also want to know the meaning and significance of material remains of the past cultures and to explain how cultures evolved and changed overtime. The discipline of ethno-archaeology has therefore developed within archaeology where archaeologists live among contemporary communities for the purpose of understanding how much societies use material culture, that is how they make their tools and weapons, how the tools are used and the social organization of such communities.

–    By a simple definition, ethno-archaeology is an attentive study of the contemporary societies as a means of understanding and interpreting the ancient societies. Take an example of the study of ancient hunting and gathering communities.

–    Ethnoarcheaologists can best do this by understanding the material remains of the present day hunting and gathering communities, for example, as a means of understanding and interpreting the ancient hunting and gathering communities.

•         Linguistic anthropology; this deals with the study of languages. The major area of concentration of linguistic anthropologists is the origin of languages.

•         Archaeology and sociology: archaeology is part of anthropology which is concerned with past humans and their material remains they left behind. Sociology is very closely related to cultural anthropology, which actually is concerned with  living humans. Sociologists deals with migrations, social injustices, demography, crime, gender, etc. thus both archaeology and sociology are concerned with societies and their structures within those societies and also patterns in those societies.

•         Archeology and art: Art has been part of human life since time immemorial. What archaeologists does in the field is the manifestation of such art in the form of various technologies and designs.

•        Archaeology and zoology

•         Zoology is the scientific study of both living and extinct animals. Zoology  is relevant in archaeology as it studies mainly the ancient bones collected from excavation sites.

–    The study of animal remains from archaeological sites is called Zoo archaeology. Zoo archaeology can be understood as a branch of archaeology where scientists are specifically interested in studying the interrelationship between humans, animals and environmental context. Archaeological sites produces many kinds of artifacts which provide clues to aid archaeologists in understanding the past. Along with more commonly recognized artifacts such as stone tools or fragments of pottery, animal (faunal) remains are also frequently found.

–    Faunal remains recovered from archaeological sites generally consists of the hard parts of animals such as bone, tooth and antler. Consequently, Zooarchaeologsts use these remains to learn about the interactions between animals and people in the past, how these interactions affected people and their environment.

•         Archaeology and Geology: geology is the scientific study of solid earth. As far as is relevant in archaeology, geology gives insight into the history of the earth as it provides the primary evidence for the evolutionary history of life and past climates. Archaeology, specifically, pre historic archaeology had always strong ties with geology. Thus archaeologists views geology as a source of information on stratigraphy and the reconstruction of paleoenvironment.

•         Archaeology and botany: the study of plants and pollen remains requires the expertise of botany and pollen analysis or polynology.

•         Archaeology and chemistry: archaeology also depends on disciplines like chemistry for the various dating techniques such as carbon 14 and potassium  Argon dating.

TOPIC 3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHODS

Identifying and locating archaelogical sites

•         A qualified and competent archeologist can easily identify archaeological objects and sites in the field. Key indications for archaeological site may includes:

–    The presence of easily visible and conspicuous structures such as earthworks(shreds), stone cairns, burial mounds, irrigation furrows and other surface features. Good examples includes the ruined remains of coral built buildings found along the cost of Tanzania, such as Kilwa Kisiwani and Kaole.

–    Surface scatter of artifacts some in dense concentrations as may be indicated by the presence of stone tools, pottery shreds, broken animal bones, etc.

–    Soil discolorations. Due to disturbances of sub-soil in the past the color of the soil in disturbed areas will appear different from that of the surrounding area. For example, the soils of areas with abandoned villages will appear as dark zones in cultivated areas.

–    Vegetation cover: Due to past disturbances of sub-soil during pre-historic times, vegetation cover may vary from place to place. For example grass may grow more lushly in areas where ditches are buried when its walls collapse due to more moisture content (rainfall). In archaeology, ditches are pits usually dug outside the walls of forts as part of defensive structures or drainage structures.

•         Despite the presence of these indicators which archaeologists can use to identify the presence or existence of archaeological sites in a given area, archaeologists as part of their strategy have developed various methods and techniques for the identification and location of sites. The main ones being:

–    Documentary research

–    Oral traditions

–    Archaeological reconnaissance / survey.

•         Documentary research: The presence of some archaeological sites has been documented / recorded by different people during the past. Therefore careful search in the libraries and archives can provide useful information about the presence and location of archaeological sites. Therefore, These written documents contain historical accounts that provides evidence of human past history. Such written documents includes books, journals, Monographs, news papers, etc. With such information, then archaeologists can visit and inspect these areas to see and establish archaeological potentials accommodated.

–    For example:

–    A number of Arab writers and historians including Ibn Batuta who visited the Eastern Coast of Africa during the 14^th century A.D. wrote about trade and commercial contacts between the Eastern Coast of Africa and other countries bordering the Indian ocean and various ports and town which were involved. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea for example have documented the existence of one of the ancient trading town of Raptah between the Pangani and the Rufiji river along the East African Coast of modern day Tanzania. Then archaeologists can use such documentary sources in identifying and locating these ports and towns for example which were abandoned by the 18^th century.

•         Oral traditions: These are stories about the past that local people generally produces and reproduces through oral performative transmission as a means of preserving their histories. It includes stories, narratives, proverbs, riddles, myths, and songs which are handed down orally. Some are records of actual historical events, some are created by people’s imagination. Oral traditions provides a useful supplement to archaeological data.

–      In the context of Africa, oral traditions is another historical source which can be useful in the identification of archaeological sites. For example, Peter Schmidt working in Kagera region collected oral traditions about the Bachwezi (descendants of the Tembuzi-gods) and the detailed analysis of the traditions enabled him to identify important areas (sites) mentioned in the traditions which after further investigation the identified areas in tradition turned out to be important archaeological sites, iron age sites

–    Archaeological reconnaissance: an archaeological site usually contains cultural remains that man made, used, discarded or abandoned long time ago. However areas which are potential archaeological sites containing such remains are usually not readily known, unless they are exposed by agents of erosion and human activities such as wind, water, earth movements, farming, road and dam construction, etc. There is therefore a need to identify and locate such archaeological sites.

•    Therefore, an  Archaeological survey / reconnaissance can be defined as  the systematic attempt to identify, locate and record the distribution of archaeological sites on the ground and in relation to their natural environment. The main aim of archaeological survey is to identify individual sites for excavation.

•    The process therefore may involve among other things physical visiting of different possible areas for the purpose of identifying, locating and recording  possible archaeological site

–    Thus, archaeological reconnaissance is the systematic method of attempting to identify, locate, and record the distribution of archaeological sites on the ground by looking at the various area contrasts in geography and environment. Archaeological reconnaissance is divided into parts;

•     Surface survey

•      Sub surface survey.

•         Surface survey: this is a carefully planned survey and detailed examination of the countryside/landscape to identify and locate both conspicuous and inconspicuous remains as distributed on the landscape.

–    It is just a preliminary examination of the survey area to identify major sites, and to assess the potentials of the sites. This involves background research, for example ; examining achieves and historical accounts, talking to people and acquiring general environmental information.

–    The area to be covered depends on the nature and objective of the reconnaissance. The area could be a whole river basin, or areas of a town or villages, etc.

–    Surface Surveys targeted to cover large areas are usually referred to as complete or comprehensive surveys of reconnaissance. However complete surveys are limited by a number of factors such as:

•     Type of vegetation cover which determines visibility, that is visibility is very low in thick forested areas while is very high in arid and semi arid areas

•     Highly populated areas also inhibit the undertaking of complete  survey

•     In heavily built up areas, cultural remains are usually buried under buildings and can only be exposed when major rebuilding or construction is undertaken.

•         Surface survey can be divided into two parts:

•     Systematic survey

•     Unsystematic survey

–    Systematic survey: this involves division of the area to be surveyed into sectors and each sector is divided into grids which are then walked systematically to locate and record sites. Most modern surface survey is done systematically, involving mapping and collection of surface features.

–    Unsystematic survey: this involves walking over each part of the survey area, that is ploughed fields, along a road, or a section exposed through erosion, inspecting and recording sites located in the area. It does not involve systematic land walkover due to topographical features of the landscape.

•          Sub surface survey: the features and artifacts found on the surface of an archaeological  site may usually not adequately reflect the nature and significance of the site. It is therefore important to collect information and data from the sub-surface of the site. This can be done by using different methods:

•       Excavating the site to determine the nature of buried cultural remains

•       Examining  the site using different detection devices (detectors). This may involve the use of such techniques like:

•      Resistivity survey / electrical resistance survey: this involves  the use current electricity to determine the nature of buried materials as different  materials have different resistances to electric current.  Thus, The method is based on the ability of the sub surface material to conduct an electric current passed through them.

–  It involves the introduction of an electric current in the ground (soil) and measure the resistance of the soil to the passage of electric current

–      In this process one probe/instrument introduces a current into the soil and the other instrument take a voltage measurement of resistance.

–      High resistance soils are often dry, coarse, and have low salinity

–      Low resistance soils are typically moist, fine, and have high salinity

–      Resistivity survey can often be used to identify compacted areas (walkways, floors), buried stone foundations and areas that have been previously excavated and filled like ditches and pit features. For example:

»      Buried stone foundations, walkways, and floors would show up as high resistance .

»      Ditches and other pit features filled with moist and  organic soils would show up as low resistance.

•         Magnetic  / Gradiometry / Magnetometry survey : this is an archaeological method that detects local variations in the strength of the earth’s magnetic fields. Magnetic field is an area of influence exerted by  magnetic force. These variations can be caused by a variety of natural and  cultural features that alter/change magnetic fields emanating from the earth.

–      The method  involves the use of a special instrument known as  Magnetometer to determine the kind and nature of buried cultural remains through earth’s magnetic field variation. For example:

»      Holes/pits that have been excavated into the sub soils and re-filled with more organic sediments, that is pre-historic features like pits, graves, and fence posts can often be detected by magnetometer if there is a greater variation in the strength of the earth's magnetic fields between the fill and the surrounding is greater enough.

–    The use of these detectors provides archaeologists with data which they can use in site survey to determine the nature and significance of the archaeological site.

•         The probe approach: this approach involves probing (investigating) of the soil with rods (shafts) or borers. The rods or borers penetrate deep in the soil and records are made when they strike  solids (floor, stone foundation) or hollows (ditches, storage pits).

–    When they strike  solid objects, it may indicate that there are buried structures such as walls, pavements/concrete, etc, while when they strike a hollow they indicate that there are disturbances in the sub soil such as the existence of Ditches. Metal rods with T-shaped handle are the instruments mostly used.

•         Echo sounding (sound waves) approach. This approach is commonly used for underwater archaeological survey. Generally, this approach use reflected sound waves (echo) to gauge vertical measurements or depth.

–    In this approach a sound pulse (wave) travels from the vessel (ship) to the ocean floor, is reflected and returns. By calculations involving the time elapse between the generation of the pulse and its return  and the speed of sound in water, a continuous record of sea floor topography can be made.

–    However, misleading reflections caused by the presence of under sea mountains and canyons, plus the variations in the speed of sound through water caused by differences in temperature, depth and salinity limit the accuracy of echo-sounding

Recording of archeological sites

•         All the sites discovered during archaeological survey must be recorded. Site recording should include

–    giving each site a number,

–    plotting it on a map including latitudes, longitudes and map grid references.

–    Also the ownership condition of the site should be recorded.

–    Location designation should include name of the village or town where the site is located, district and region.

•         Most countries have a formalized way of recording archaeological sites and special forms have bee established

•        Continuation….

Archaeological Excavation

•         Archaeological excavation is the principle method of data acquisition in archaeology.  This method involves the systematic recovering of archaeological remains through the removal of the deposits of soil and other materials covering them. It can also be defined as the exposure, recording, and recovery of buried material remains.

–    Archaeological excavation is very important because it yields the most reliable evidence for the two main kind of information archaeologists are interested in:

•     Human activities at a particular period in the past

•     Changes in those activities from period to period.

•         To achieve these objectives, archaeologists are ought to study their sites in terms of relationship of the materials in space and time. Thus, the relationship of the materials horizontally in space and vertically through time are very important.

•         The study of the relationship of archaeological remains in time and space is facilitated by two principles or laws, that is the principle or law of association and the principle or law of superposition

•         The principle / law of association:

–    The law of association was first stated by Danish archaeologist J.J.A. Worsaae when he was excavating prehistoric burials in 1843.

–    The law states that objects, features, and structures found in the same horizontal plane/layer are associated . For example, in burial pit containing human skeletons and ceramic (pottery)and iron objects, the ceramic and iron objects are associated with the skeleton, and both the skeleton and the objects are associated with burial pit.

–    In an excavated layer in which there are remains of houses, storage pits, and artifacts, it can be argued that because of their horizontal relationship such finds are associated to each other.

•         The principle / law of superposition

–    The law states that geological layers of the earth are stratified , one upon the other, with the lowest layer being the first to be deposited and therefore the earliest. Therefore any object found in the lowermost layer, whether a stone or something humanly made, was deposited there before the upper layers were accumulated. In other words, the lower strata are earlier than the upper.

–    The succession of layers or strata is called stratification, and the study of such succession is called stratigraphy.

–    In archaeology, this law of superposition applies because :

•     Firstly, most important finds especially those of early periods were found within geological layers or context.

•     Secondly, archaeological sites are formed under the same principle. Archaeological objects are usually  made, used and discarded. These are then covered by deposits mostly due to natural processes. Therefore, archaeological site which has been occupied at different periods will contain successive layers of such occupations, with the earliest occupation being overlaid by layers of the later occupation.

»  Therefore tools, houses, and other finds in one layer of a site can be dated relatively to the other layers.

Types of excavation

•         There are two major types of archaeological excavation, that is total excavation and selective excavation.

–    Total excavation:  refers to the rescue exercise which involves the digging of the whole site. This is a comprehensive work. It is very expensive and undesirable as it leaves none of the site intact for future research. In most cases it is confined to smaller sites such as burial mounds or campsite.

–    Selective excavation: this is the opposite of total excavation. Under this approach, the area is selected for excavation through the use of sampling methods.

Excavation methods

•        Generally there two methods of archaeological excavation. Vertical excavation and horizontal excavation.

–    Vertical excavation: This method is basically employed when the major goal is to reveal the stratification of the site and thus sample the various layers of the site and consequently establish stratigraphy sequence of the site. The method is used in a site where space is limited, such as small caves and rock shelters . Generally it is limited in the area covered , though a number of strategies can be combined to support  vertical excavation such as:

•    Use of test pit spread over a sizable part of the site: this technique involve the excavation of small trenches which are basically aiming either to:

–  establishing the vertical depth of the archaeological site and obtain samples of artifacts from different layers or

–   obtain samples from different parts of the archaeological site

•     Vertical trenching: these are much larger, deeper cuttings. They  are very useful in the excavation of sites with sequence of building operations and cave or rock shelter sites with deep deposits of artifacts.

–    Area or horizontal excavation: this method emphasizes on the horizontal dimension of the site and it is aimed at opening up the large parts or areas of a layer to reveal the spatial distribution between artifacts, features, and structures in a particular layer. This method covers a large area to recover building plans or the layout of the entire settlement, or even historic gardens.

Excavation equipments / tools:

The basic tools involved in the excavation process include the following:

–    Trowel (small spade)

–    Small plastic bags to hold artifacts from each other

–    Waterproof water makers to label the bags

–    Pencil

–    Brushes

–    Record sheet

–    Clipboards

–    Small sieves

–    Tape measures

–    Mapping machine (full set)

–    Machete

Archaeological recording

•         Archaeological excavation can be regarded as a process aiming at recovering data from archaeological sites and creating the necessary documents which will facilitate the study and interpretation of the archaeological site and data collected.

•         Therefore the proper recording of archaeological excavations and documentation of the data being collected is absolutely essential. Thus archaeological excavation should aim at both maximizing data recovery and ensuring full documentation of all excavation processes.

•         Therefore the following records are created during excavations:

–    Site plan showing the site in general and each excavated layer or exposed layer. The plan for the excavated layers is aimed at recording the exposed artifacts, features, and structures including plans for some of the revealed features and structures especially complex ones.

–    Stratigraphical records: these records are aiming at elucidating the stratigraphy of the site and how various features and structures relate to the various layers in which they are found.

–    Field Notebooks. A variety of notebooks can be kept . These may include;

•     the site diary or logbook which is a detailed account of the progress of the excavation on a daily basis. This is a  permanent record of the excavation.

•     Register of finds are also kept. This might include a register of small finds and general register.

–    Photographic records: all major phases of the excavation should be photographed including the layout of the exposed layers and their contents; all stratigraphic sections, and important features, structures, and concentration of artifacts and other finds

Sorting out of finds

•         Sorting out and initial classification of finds is usually done in the filed, and the establishment of field laboratory is essential:

–    Sorting out of finds would include cleaning, labeling, marking, preserving the finds in the containers and their eventual storage. However the cleaning of artifacts should be done with great care, as might destroy some of the important evidence crucial to the future analysis and interpretation of the finds.

–    Field classification of the recovered materials usually involves the grouping of the finds in broad categories such as stone, pottery, bones, metal objects etc. These broad categories can further be broken down. For example, pottery can be sub-divided into decorated and un-decorated

•         The excavation process comes to an end with the filling of the excavation trenches, breaking up the research camp and transporting the finds to the laboratory for further classification, analysis, and interpretation.

Analysis and interpretation of excavated data

Introduction

The completion of archeological excavation marks the end of the filed work whose main objective is the collection of data for archaeological findings. The end of field work is followed by detailed and systematic analysis of the data collected. In general archaeologists analyze archaeological data to interpret and explain the following major areas:

•         Who were the earliest people and when did they live? For example when dealing with human beings, archaeologists are interested to know about our ancestors.

–    When did they first appear?

–    how did they look like?

–    Which stages did they pass before our own species?

–    Where did they live? What was the environment and what resources were available? What was the climate like?

–    What did they make and use? The study of technology and its development in space and time is important at this point. What materials were used? How were they obtained and what tools were made and used and how were they made?

–    How did they sustain they living? What plant and animal resources were exploited and how they exploited? (subsistence and diet)

–    How were they organized? Can the archaeological data tell us anything about social organization? For example, how were the hunting and gathering communities organized? Why and when did Chiefdoms and states develop?

–    How were they related? Was there any contact between the various cultures or societies identified in the archaeological data? What was the form of contact- trade, warfare, etc.

–    What did they think? What were their beliefs? Religion and art?

•         Thus to able to deal with all these problems, archaeologists needs to analyze different types of data. The process of data analysis is usually facilitated by the classification process.

The classification of archaeological data

•         The classification of archaeological data allows the archaeologists to:

1. Organize the data into the manageable units. Thousands of artifacts made of different materials can be recovered in an excavation site. There is therefore a need to group the finds into manageable units such as according to defined characteristics or attribute (quality). This is done into two stages:

»  General classification:  this involves dividing the artifacts into broad categories usually on the basis of raw materials  or nature of finds such as those made of stone, bones, etc food remains such as animal bones and plant remains.

»  Sub-division of broad categories and different groups: for example the stone artifacts can  be further sub divided into trimmed (neater and small) and untrimmed tools.

2. Describing types, using individual characteristic of the artifacts, artifacts sharing common characteristics can be grouped into types, for example stone tools can be grouped into different types: choppers, polyhedrons, spheroids, discoid, bifacial, unifacial, etc

3. Identifying relationship between types (e.g. Choppers and polyhedrons). This relationship between types allows the establishment of the relationship between the artifacts in terms of raw materials, manufacturing techniques and function.

Typology

•         Once the archaeologists have classified the data, then these data needs to be compared with either data from other sites (e.g. Olduvai in Tanzania and Chilombe in Kenya), different layers of a site ( Oldowan A,B,C), from different areas. To do this the archaeologists needs to develop what is called typology. (classifying excavated artifacts basing on comparing physical characteristics - type)

•         Typology can be defined as a system of classification based on comparison of types / classes. The objective of typology therefore is to manage large mass of data. For example, if we are dealing with pottery, the following procedures would be followed in establishing typology:

–    Separation of the pottery shreds in different categories using the following attributes: vessel shape, firing method, and surface finish, that is decorated or undecorated .

–    The undecorated shreds are then analyzed in detail and if there are no specific characteristics, the shreds can be counted, weighed and put away.

–    The decorated shreds are then further analyzed and separated into different groups according to the type of decoration. For example, if decoration is painting, we may find that there re four sub-types or groups; those painted in black, yellow, red, and white. We now have five groups or types, that is undecorated, decorated shreds, those painted in black, yellow, red, and white

–    We can further sub divide the painted types according to the types of motifs (pictures). For example the black painted group can be sub divided as follows:  those with floral motifs, geometric motifs, etc. the same could be done for yellow, red and white painted shreds.

Chronology: Common Dating Techniques.

•         How old is it? This is an important question in archaeology. The artifacts recovered through excavation and later classified and grouped into different types are useless without assigning them date. Therefore, to establish time framework for such analyzed and classified materials, archaeologists use a variety of methods and techniques. Generally, there are two broad categories of dating archaeological finds, these are relative dating and absolute dating.

Relative Dating Methods:

•          These are mainly non-scientific dating methods which are  incapable of establishing Absolute age of an artifact. They can only determine the sequential order, but can not answer the question when?. These methods were relied on especially prior to the introduction of scientific methods of dating. However, even when the scientific methods of absolute dating are available, this method of dating has not lost its importance  because many archaeologists still depend solely on relative dating.

–    There are various methods of relative dating. These includes the following:

»  Stratigaphical sequence: stratigraphy is the study of arrangement  of cultural layers ( also called deposits) one above the other. From the point of view of relative dating, the important principle is that the underlying layer was deposited first and therefore older than the overlying layer. 

•     According to this method, the upper deposits are younger and the lower deposits are older. Therefore archaeological artifacts found in the lower deposits are older than those found in the upper deposits.

»  Typological sequence: typology is the classification system based on the comparison of types of artifacts. Typological sequence therefore can be used to establish relative chronological sequence because of the two basic assumptions:

•     Artifacts of the same period and place have a recognizable style and that their distinctive shape and other attributes are characteristics of the society that produced them.

•     The change in the style of artifacts is normally gradual or evolutionary. Therefore, artifacts made at the same time are alike and those made later will be different due to stylistic change through time.

Absolute or chronometric dating:

•          Before the 1950s archaeologists relied on relative dating techniques for establishing chronological sequence. These sequences could only tell which artifacts or cultures are older or later than others and which are contemporary.

•         By the beginning of the 1950s, a number of chronometric or absolute dating techniques have been developed for dating the past. Absolute dating therefore is the determination of age with reference to a specific time scale, such as fixed calendrical system. There are several methods of absolute dating. These are:

•         Radio carbon 14 dating: This is one of the most important methods of dating the ancient objects which contain some carbon in them. Carbon 14 is produced in the atmosphere and is absorbed by plants through the process known as photosynthesis. Carbon 14 enters animals when they eat plants. The proportion of carbon 14 in an organism remains constant until its death. Until that time no further C14 is taken in. Carbon 14 is unstable isotope (With 2 extra neutron). It is known as radiocarbon because it is unstable and it decay at a known rate (change over time). This allows C14 to be used for dating .

–    Therefore, bone remains, charcoal, hair, skin and other organic materials can be used for Carbon 14 dating. Carbon 14 can only be used to determine age sample not older than 50,000 years.

•         Dendrochronology: this is a method that uses tree-rings analysis to establish chronology. This method is also called Tree-Ring Dating Method. Dendrochronology can date the time at which tree rings were formed in many types of wood to the exact calendar year.

–    Every growth season a tree adds a new layer of woods to its trunk. Over time these yearly growth layers form a series of light and dark concentric circles or tree rings that are visible on cross sections of felled tree. It is these tree rings that are used to determine the absolute date.

•         Potassium-Argon technique: This technique is used by geologists to date rocks hundreds or even thousands of years old. It is based on the same principle as radio carbon 14 dating. Potassium 40 (40k) is an unstable radioactive isotope which is found in all minerals. It also decay at a known rate. It can therefore be used to date rocks as old as 2 billion years and as recent as 400,000 years.

•         Uranium series dating: this method is based on the same principle as C14 and Potassium argon techniques. Radioactive isotopes of the uranium element decays at a known rate. This techniques can be used to date materials aged between 500,000- 50,000 years.

TOPIC 4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL THEORIES

•         Archaeological theories refers to the various intellectual frame works through which archaeologists interpret archaeological data. A theory is a set of principles in which the practice of activity is based. In archaeology, it is a set of principles under which the practice of archaeology is based.

•         There is no single approach to archaeological theory that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. Different archaeologists believes that information should be interpreted in different ways. When archaeology developed in the late 19^th century:

–    The first approach to archaeological theory to be practiced was that of CULTURAL- HISTORY ARCHAEOLOGY which is also regarded as TRADITIONAL ARCHAEOLOGY. By this time archaeology was considerer unscientific.

–    In the 1960s, another archaeological approach developed, that is PROCESSUALISM.  This is thought to revolutionalize the pursuit of archaeology under the ground of NEW ARCHAEOLOGY.

–    From 1980s, other theoretical orientations have become important in archaeology under the label of POST-PROCESSUALISM.

•         Traditional archaeology: This is also known as cultural history archaeology. It was basically descriptive / explanatory with little attempts to explain cultural changes or processes.  The main question asked by traditional archaeologists were like what?, when?, and where?

•         Processual archaeology : this also is known as new archaeology. It was advocated by Lewis Binford and David Clerk in America and England respectively. It is a new approach developed in the 1960s which argued completely for scientific framework of archaeological methodologies and theory. This school of thought holds that archaeologists are able to develop accurate and objective information about past societies by applying scientific methods to their investigation.

–    The advocates of this school of thought argue that archaeology should be more scientific in its approach. Conclusion should be based not simply in the personal authority of scholars making the interpretation, but on an explicitly framework of scientific arguments. That is to say, for conclusions to be considered valid must be open to testing.

•         Post-processual archaeology: this is an archaeological movement that developed in the 1980s emphasizing on the subjectivity of archaeological interpretation. it was pioneered by such scholars like Hodder and Christopher Tilley.

–    Post processual archaeology claim that all archaeological data is contaminated by human interpretation and social factors, and that any interpretation that they make about past societies is therefore subjective.

–    They claimed that every archaeologist is in fact biased by his or her personal experience and background, and therefore truly archaeological work is difficulty or impossible.

–    Post processual archaeologists analyzes not only the material remains excavated, but also themselves, their attitudes and opinion. The different approaches to archaeological evidence which every archaelogist brings to his or her interpretation results in different constructs (build up)of the past for each individual.

5. BASICS OF HUMAN EVOLUTION.

Primates

•         Are members of the mammalian order primates, divided into two sub orders of Prosmians (lower primates) and Anthropoids (higher primates).

Common features of primates

–    All primates belong to the class mammalian and they share the following common features:

–    The bodies of primates are covered with dense hair which provides insulation. Even human beings have hair in various parts, though perhaps not always for insulation.

–    Primates generally are omnivorous, that is, they eat all kind of food, including insects and small animals, as well as fruits, seeds, leaves, and roots.

–    Most primates have opposable thumb, a feature that allows an even precise and powerful grip and climbing.

–    Primates are characterized by stereoscopic vision ( allows depth perception). Their eyes are directed forward purposely to allow them to focus on insects or other food or a distant branch with both eyes at once.

–    Most primates also have color vision, perhaps to recognize when plant foods (mainly fruits) are ready to eat. As a matter of fact, vision is extremely important to primates life.

–    Primate’s reproductive system sets this order of mammals apart from other mammals. Males of most primate species have a pendulous penis that is not attached to the abdomen by skin. On the other hand, most of the female primate species have two nipples on the chest.

–    Primates give birth to live young that develop to considerable size within the mother and are nourished by sacking from the mother’s mammary gland.

–    Young primates have a relatively long period of dependence on adults after birth. This period is also a time of learning from their elders and play is a common technique of learning to all primates.

–    Primates have flat nails instead of claws. This structure  allows them to hold or manipulate objects more easily.

Classification of primates

•         As already mentioned, the order primate is often divided into two sub-orders namely Prosmians and Anthropoids.

Prosmians

•         The prosmians resemble other mammals more than the anthropoids do. They depend much more on smell for information than the anthropoids. They have longer snout / nose and typically have more mobile ears.

•         The prosmians exhibit many traits shared by all primates including grasping hands, stereoscopic vision and etc. The prosmians primates includes lemur, lorises, and tarsias.

•         Lemur: these are found on two islands of Madagascar and Comoro:

–    Members of lemur group usually produce single offspring although twins and even triplets are common on some species.

–    Many of the species of this group are quadrupeds.

–    Many species are nocturnal, they are very active at night.

–    They live in group ranging from a small family to as many as 60 members.

–    They have unusual feature, i.e. females often dominates male particularly over access to food. In most primates and in most mammals, females dominance is rarely observed.

•         Lorises:  these are found in south east Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa:

–    They are nocturnal

–    Arboreal, that is they live on trees

–    They eat fruits, tree gum and insects

–    They give birth to single infants

•         Tarsiars: these are found in  the island of the Philippines and Indonesia:

–    They are nocturnal

–    They are Arboreal, that is they live in trees.

–    They are insect eaters and sometimes eat small mammals.

Anthropoids

•         The anthropoid sub order includes humans, apes, and monkeys. Many anthropoids share several traits in varying degree:

–    They have highly efficient reproductive systems, including placenta that is formed more fully than in any prosmians.

–    They have non mobile and reduced ears.

–    They also have highly skillful hands.

•         The anthropoid order is divided into two main groups:

–    Platyrrhines  (New World Monkey)

–    Catyrrhines   (Old World Monkey)

•         These groups takes their names from the nose shape of different anthropoids:

–    The new world monkeys have broad, flat-bridged noses with nostrils facing outwards. These monkeys are found in Central and South America. Good examples are Marmosets and Tamarins.

–    The old world monkey have narrow nose with nostrils facing down wards (like man). Good example are chimpanzee, gorillas, baboons, and hominids (humans)

Features distinguishing the New world monkeys and the Old world monkeys:

•         Besides the shape of the nose and the position of the nostrils, other anatomical features that distinguish the new world monkeys from the old world monkeys are as follows:

–    New world monkeys have  three premolars where as  old world monkeys have two.

–    Some new world monkeys have a prehensile (grasping) tail. It is used as the third hand to grab things and also give the balance when they climb branches of trees, where as no old world monkeys do.

–    All the new world monkeys are completely arboreal (live in trees) where as some of the old world monkey live  both in trees and on the ground. Some of the old world monkey are completely terrestrial (live on the ground)

–    Males of the new world monkeys involves themselves on the parenting of the infants. Most of the time the male will carry the infant on its back and return it to its mother for nursing. While the old world monkeys male never get involved with the caring of the infant, caring is only done by female monkeys.

Distinctive human traits

•         The following are the features that distinguish humans from other primates:

–    Bipedal locomotion. Of all the primates, only humans consistently walk upright on two feet. Chimpanzee and gorilla and some few monkeys too, may stand or walk on two feet sometimes, but for  very short periods.

–    The human jaw is shaped like parabolic arch (curved), rather than a U- shape as in apes.

–    Human teeth reflects our completely omnivorous diet ( eating both, meat and plants) and are not very specialized. This reflect the fact that we use tools to prepare our food. Many lower primates have long lower canines which are essentially used for tearing down food.

–    Language. Only humans have spoken symbolic language. Other primates have their own ways of communicating too. Chimpanzee are also communicative, using gestures and many vocalizations in the wild.

•     Tool making. Humans have always been considered the only tool making animal. They make and use tools in a more advanced manner.

•     Humans are one of the few primates that are completely terrestrial. We do not even sleep in trees as many other ground living primates do.

•     Division of labor by gender in food getting and sharing in adulthood. Among non human primates, both females and males hunt for themselves after infan

Ape-like humans.

•         It is very clear that by about 4 m.y.a. we have fossil remains of human looking creatures referred to as ape-man or proto-humans. The fossil was discovered at Taung cave in South Africa by Prof. Raymond Dart. Dart assumed that despite its ape like characteristics, anatomically the specimen had human like features which placed it in the human lineage.

•         After close analysis of the finds, Dart conclude that, the fossil remains belonged to a child of between 5-7 years old. He finally named the specimen Australopithecus  Africanus which means “ Southern ape of Africa”. Dart conclusion  met with serious criticisms and opposition from other scientists because:

–    These scientists believed that hominids had originated in Asia.

–    Dart had found only one fossil and it was an infant rather than adult, and no other hominid fossil had yet been found in Africa.

•         After long opposition and debate from other scientists, the findings were accepted.

•         Later on the fossils were found in several caves in South Africa such as Makapansagat, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans and Kromdrai. These hominid remains dated to between 3.8 -1 m.y.a. and they belong to two species namely Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus robustus. Although these discoveries in South Africa were important in defining the Australopithecus generic group, they were not chronometrically dated.

•         Therefore the first discovery of Australopithecus to be absolutely dated was that of Dr. Marry Leakey in 1959 when she discovered fossil remains at Oldvai Gorge which she named Zinjanthropus.

•         The fossils included a skull with teeth fragments. After careful analysis of the fossil remains, it was revealed that, the remains were that of a male. Because of its huge mandible (lower jaw) and teeth it was nicknamed nutcracker man( nut cracker is a tool used for cracking the shell of nuts). The skull was found in association of stone tools and animal bones and was dated 1.75 m.y.a.

•         Besides Oldvai Gorge, another site which produced fossil evidence of early hominids included Laetoli site in Tanzania and Hardar in Ethiopia. Laetoli was first investigated in the late 1930 by Louis and Mary Leakey, but no fossil hominids were found at that time. Mary Leakey returned to Laetoli with Tim White, an American paleontologist in 1978.

–    This time bone remains of what were likely Australopithecus afarensis dating between 3.7-3.5 m.y.a. were discovered. The remains consisted of large number of teeth and jaws. Interestingly, foot prints of bipedal hominids (presumably afarensis) were also discovered on the volcanic ash layer at Laetoli site. The footprint look like almost like those of modern humans.

•         In Kenya we have fossil remains of what is called Australopithecus anamensis. This was discovered east of Lake Turkana, dating back to 4.2 m.y.a.

•         In general paleoanthropologists divide the genus Australopithecus  into at lest four species

–    Australopithecus Afarensis

–    Australopithecus Africanus

–    Australopithecus Anamenisis

–    Australopithecus Robustus

–    Australopithecus  Boisei.

Relationship of early hominid fossils

•         According to available evidence, Africa has produced the earliest evidence of human origin though the debate continues. There are two debates:

•         How to describe and define the genera and species represented by the fossils,

•         Which method would best describe the relationship among the identified genera and species. For example among the Australopithecines, which species evolved to Homo.

Early humans

•         These are hominids with large brain size than that of Australopithecines. These hominids began to appear 2.5 million years ago. Because of their relatively large brain size and most of their anatomical characteristics pointing towards modern humans, they were classified in our genus, Homo.

•         In the Homo generic there are at least three species:

–    Homo habilis

–    Homo erectus

–    Homo sapiens

Homo habilis

•         Homo habilis (hand man); the first Homo habilis remains were found at Oldvai gorge in Tanzania. The remains consisted of several teeth and lower jaw associated with fragments of a cranium (skull of a head). These fossils were discovered by Louis Leakey, Philip Tobias, and John Napia in 1960.

•         The remains of Homohabilis have also been discovered from eastern area of Lake Turkna in Kenya, the Omo basin of Ethiopia and South African caves.

Characteristics of Homohabilis

–    Homo habilis had a significant large brain size, averaging 630-640 cc.

–    Homo habilis had a reduced molars and premolars.

–    Homo habilis had a short body with disproportionately/excessively long arms when compared to modern humans.

–    They also had relatively massive/ huge brow /forehead ridges

–    Homo habilis had flexible thumb and precision grip which provided the anatomical basis for tool making.

•         Many stone tools have been found at various sites in East Africa around the time of Homo habilis. Some anthropologists assume that these tools were made by homo habilis. The inference was made from the large brain capacity of the species as well as the precision grip of the hands and the flexibility of a thumb which provided the specie with tool making ability.

Homo erectus

•         Homo erectus appeared to have evolved in Africa about 1.6 million years ago. It is probably that they have evolved from earlier Homo habilis populations. We know from many finds that Homo erectus was the first hominid species to be widely distributed in the old world because fossil remains of this specie have been discovered there (i.e. Africa, Asia, and Europe).

•         The earliest fossil of Homo erectus come from East Turkana in Kenya, where the skull dated back to 1.6 and 1.5 m.y.a. was recovered. On the other hand, a nearly complete Homo erectus skeleton of 12 years old boy was found in the western part of Lake Turkana.

•         Apart from the fossils from lake Turkana region of Kenya, Louis Leakey discovered incomplete cranium of Homo erectus at Olduvai gorge in northern Tanzania in the year 1960.

•         The remains of Homo erectus have also been discovered from Trinil area of Java and Zhoukoudian cave in Asia.

Characteristics of Homo erectus

–    Homo erectus had larger brain size over Homo habilis ranging between 945 and 1,040 cc

–    Homo erectus nasal aperture/holes projected forward, suggesting the first appearance of the typical human external nose with the nostril facing downwards.

–    The first hominid to radiate and expand moving out of Africa and colonize other parts of the old world, Europe and Asia. They moved out of Africa around 1 million years ago.

–    The cranial bone of homo erectus was thicker than that in earlier hominids

–    Homo erectus was an accomplished tool maker and tool user. Apparently, homoerectus was the tool maker of the Acheulean industrial complex (hand axe and other bi-facial tools). Aucheulean tools are found in various sites in the old world, though they were discovered for the first time at St. Acheulean, France

–    Homoerectus was the first hominid to control and use fire. Because this specie was the first to be found throughout the old world and in areas with freezing winter, most anthropologists presumes that Homo erectus learned to control fire, at least for warmth. Suggestive but not conclusive evidences of the deliberate use of fire come from Kenya in East Africa

–    Homoerectus also engaged in wild game hunting as a means of subsistence. Although the issue is still debatable among paleontologists, some other scholars including archaeologists contends that hunting is ancient human subsistence strategy going back hundreds of thousands of years, perhaps even a million years to the time of homoerectus. This means that homo erectus was probably the first human to live in hunter gatherer society.

•         Generally, homo erectus was actually one of the most successful early species of genus and was probably the first homo species to migrate out of Africa.

MODERN HUMAN

•         It is known that, at least three species belonging to the Homo generic group have been identified:

–    Homo habilis dating to 2.5 – 1.5 m.y.a.

–    Homo erectus dating to 1.5 – 400,000 year ago

–    Homo sapiens dating to 400,000 years ago.

•         Available evidence shows that Homo sapiens emerged in Africa and eventually populated to other parts of the world. Fossil evidence in Africa indicates that between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago, early man anatomically different from Homo erectus and resembling Homo sapiens were already inhabiting different parts of Africa. These fossils have been assigned to Archaic/old Homo sapiens and have been recovered from Bodo (Ethiopia), Sale (Morocco) and Saldanha (South Africa).

•         By the period between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago, we have fossil remains which belong to anatomically modern man ( Homo Sapiens Sapiens). The fossils were discovered in the Klaiseis river mouth cave and Border cave in South Africa.

The emergence of modern man

•         It is now well established that modern looking humans appeared earlier outside Europe (South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Morocco, etc). As for now the oldest fossils classified as Homo sapiens sapiens come from Africa. Remains of anatomically modern humans have also been discovered in Israel and Australia.

THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF MODERN HUMANS

•         There are two theories that explains the origin of modern humans. The two theories, however are still debatable among anthropologists. These are :

–    Single origin theory

–    Multiregional theory

Single origin theory / displacement / out of Africa)

•         The single origin theory suggests that modern human (Homo sapiens) emerged in one part of the old world and then spread to other parts, such as Near East, Europe then Asia, replacing  other pre-modern Homo-sapiens.

•        Continuation….

–    The theory postulates that modern humans evolved relatively recently in Africa, migrated into Eurasia and Asia replaced all populations which had descended from Homo erectus

–    Supporters of the displacement theory, commonly known as "out of Africa," contend that modern human / Homo sapiens populations are derived from a single modern population group that left Africa recently about 80,000 years ago. This founding group migrated throughout the Old World, displacing and colonizing any surviving archaic /old hominids.

–    Most evidence points to the first theory because

•     fossils of modern-like humans are found in Africa

•     stone tools and other artifacts support African origin

•     DNA studies suggest a founding population in Africa

Multiregional origin theory

•         The theory suggests that modern humans evolved in various parts of the world after homo erectus spread out of Africa.

•         Supporters of the multiregional theory contend that after Homo erectus ( 1.5 m.y.a. and 400,000 y.a) left Africa and dispersed into other portions of the Old World such as Asia and Europe, regional populations slowly evolved into modern humans.

–    The theory proposes that  Homo erectus population in various parts of the world gradually evolved into anatomically modern looking humans.

–    The emergence of Homo sapiens/ modern humans was not restricted to any one area, but was multiregional, a phenomenon that occurred throughout the entire geographic range where humans lived

–    According to this theory natural selection in regional populations, ever since their original dispersal, is responsible for the regional variants (sometimes called races) we see today

•         So, scientists all agree that our early hominid relatives arose in Africa, but disagree on when the direct ancestors of living humans left Africa to populate the globe.

TOPIC 6. THE BASICS OF CULTURAL EVOLUTION

•         Man is both a biological and cultural being. Therefore,  Anthropologists study man as a biological organism and people with culture. Archaeologists are also interested in both aspect.

•         Culture can be defied as knowledge, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society.

•         Human culture can therefore be regarded as non-biological characteristics unique to man and which distinguishes man from other animals and which enables man to adapt  to the environment.

•         Archaeologists therefore views human culture as adaptive systems developed by the past societies to cope or interact with the environment.  Thus, the major differences between other animals and human beings are:

–    While man develops culture as primary means of adapting to the environment, all other animals adapt to their environment through biological evolution.

•     An animal that is well adapted to the environment prospers, even if there is a change in the environment, while the one which fails to adapt to the environment either evolves into a new specie, move away or becomes extinct / die out

•     When man is faced with similar situation (environmental changes), he adapts to such changes by developing new habits and capabilities to cope up with the changes. For example he may develop new technologies or changes and diversify the resources he will exploit.

–    Another major difference between man and animals is that human culture is learnt and passed from one generation to the other. This means that man shares knowledge with other members of the society and communicate their knowledge from generation to generation. But this is not the case with other  animals.

•         In general culture is learnt through intentional teaching, by trial and error and by observation and imitation. This learning process allows for the artifacts and behavior to continue from one generation to the other and such continuation and any changes that occur are preserved in the material culture which the archaeologists study. Animal lacks the capability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the other.

The origin of tool use and manufacture

•         Tool using was previously regarded as a behavior unique to man. However, researches and studies on animal behavior especially apes, the closest relative of man, have shown that other animals do occasionally use tools. For example:

–    Egyptian vultures is known to pick up stones and use them for breaking up ostrich egg shells.

–    The Californian sea otter uses pebbles placed on its chest to smash shellfish against it.

–    Among the living primates, the chimpanzee picks pieces of wood and uses them for termini fishing.

•         However, non of these animals do deliberately shape the stones to produce sharp edges and use them as tools. This ability to design tools for particular purpose is only unique to humans.

•         It is now generally accepted that tool making and using in consistent and systematic pattern is an early man's adaptive behavior developed to meet specific needs. But how and when did the early hominids start using and making tools? and What materials were used are important questions to archaeologists.

•         The type of materials used in the making of tools is an important issue since it is only those materials which are durable that are likely to survive archaeological record. For example:

–    Wood has been available and could be used or shaped into different types of implements such as spears, etc. However, because of its nature and structure, wood is a perishable material which easily decays and rots when exposed to the elements of weather. Wood, will therefore unless under special conditions like being water logged or very dry conditioned like arid areas, normally cannot be preserved. What is being stressed here is that if wood was one of the earliest materials used for making tools, such evidence would not be preserved in the archaeological record.

–    Animal bones are another material which was available and could have been used for tool making. Although bones are also perishable materials, the chances of preservation either through the process of fossilization or when found in favorable conditions such as waterlogged, or very dry conditions are higher than those of wood. However the use of animal bones by early hominids as tools or for making tools have been a subject of debate among archeologists. For example:

•     Prof. Dart who in 1924 discovered the first fossil remain of Australopithenes in the Taung cave in South Africa, found many animal bones in the same site and layer that produced the fossil hominid.

•     Because the bones including teeth and horn conks were broken ones, Dart postulated that they might have been used by the Hominids and he coined the name of Osteodontokeratic culture for this stage in man’s development. A stage in which early hominids made use of animal bones as their tools.

•     However further studies by other experts have established that these bones were broken and deposited in the cave by natural agencies including carnivores and that early hominids were not responsible for the introduction and deposition of the bones in the caves. Thus hominid use of these bones as tools has been disapproved.

–    Another problem in identifying the earliest tools is the way the hominids used tools. For example, if the hominids just picked the naturally occurring materials like stone, bone, wood and discarded them after use, they would not leave any marks or signs of use if they had not been reused or used for  a long time. Thus even if such objects have survived archaeologists won’t be able to distinguish them from the natural ones. What needs to be emphasized here is that early hominids might have used tools long before such use was preserved in the archaeological record.

–    Another theoretical question relevant to tool use and manufacture is how this human behavior developed. Was it a sudden or abrupt development or did it develop through a long period of trial and errors? Two hypotheses have so far been advanced to explain how the tool use and making might have developed:

•     One is named as the “big bump” hypothesis which favors the sudden and abrupt development.

•     The second one is the “succession of small knocks” hypothesis which favors a slow and gradual development through experimentation, trial and error.

•         The making of tools whether of wood, bone or stone should be regarded as a process which involves several stages.

•         It is conceivable that the beginning of tool making would involve very simple processes  which became more complex as the early hominid learnt and mastered the properties of the materials they were using and as the tasks or activities to be performed become diversified  and more demanding.

•         Various schemes have been formulated to explain the evolution of tool making process. One of the scheme is that  formulated by the late Glynn Isaac (1986) which takes into consideration the morphological and technological organization of lithic artifacts, Isaac recognizes the following categories:

–    Flaked Pieces( F.P) : these are the stone objects mostly lumps of stone or pieces of stone known as cores from which chips or flakes have been removed or stuck off. Archaeologists usually classifies such materials as cores which shows evidence of use for the removal of flakes which are later used to make other tools.

–    Detached Pieces (D.P) these are flakes and flake fragments removed or detached from cores.

–    Pounded and battered Pieces (P.P) these are natural rock pieces which shows signs of use. These might have been used for making other tools or used directly as tools.

The Earliest Stone Making Tradition

•         In 1959 Dr. Mary Leakey who has worked in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania since the 1930s discovered the famous hominid skull. This is commonly referred to as Zinjanthropus or ‘Nutcracker man’.

•         In the same layer, her excavation revealed concentrated patches of stone tools and broken animal bones belonging to different species of animals.

•         Further excavations in the lacustrine deposits of the site revealed successive layers  with similar concentration of stone tools and broken animal bones in Beds 1 and 11.

•         Although  these stone tools  look crude, they indicate that by 1.8 m.y.a. early hominids were capable of making tools out of stone with a recognizable pattern and of different classes which could be used for performing different tasks, such as butchering of animals, cutting, skinning, for braking animal bones, for wood working and digging up plant food. Most of the tools had sharp cutting edge. The tools include:

–    Core – tools: These are those tools made out of rock blocks from which flakes have been removed to produce a sharp edge and in terms of typology include choppers, discoid, spheroids and polyhedrons. These are also referred to as heavy duty tools.

–    Small tools made out flakes also referred to as light duty tools. These include different types of scrapping tools known s scrappers and piecing tools known as walls and burins

–    Flakes and flake fragments with sharp edges which could have been used for a variety of purpose.

•         These stone tools in the lowest layers of Olduvai Gorge  have been given the name of the Olduwan Industrial Tradition, and this is now regarded as the earliest stone tool technology or stone tool working traditions.

•         Similar stone artifacts of the oldowan Industrial Tradition have been found in the Kobi Fora area of lake Turkana in Kenya, Chesowanya also in Kenya; Melka Kanture and Bodo in Ethiopia and Sterk-fontain in south Africa.

The Olduwan Industrial Tradition

•         The Olduwan is the archaeological term used to refer to the stone tool industry that was used by early hominids. The term Olduwan was first named and described by Louis and Mary Leakey at the site of Olduvai Gorge where the first Olduwan tools were discovered. The Oldawan Industrial Complex date back to 1.8-1.5 m.y.a.

•         The available evidence indicates that the Olduwan tools were the earliest stone tools in human history which marked the beginning of the archaeological record of stone tools.

•         It is now well established that the first specie of the genus Homo (Homohabilis) was the tool makers of this Industrial complex.

•         The tools were apparently made by striking a stone with another stone, a technique called Percussion Flaking. Both the sharp – edged flakes and the sharp – edged cores were used as tools. Some times this is regarded as the core technology since the flakes were removed from the core.

•         In terms of typology, the Olduwan Industrial Tradition is composed of the following tools:

–    Choppers- these are tools that have been partially flaked and have a side that might have been used for chopping. It might be unifacial, with one working edge or bifacial, with two working edge. Choppers can be divided into sub-types depending on the position or shape of the working edge, sides and pointed.

–    Polyhedrons – these are regular blocks with three or more working edges.

–    Spheroids – these are smoothly rounded over the whole exterior.

–    Discoid – irregularly flaked around the edges

–    Scrappers – these are both heavy and light duty.  The heavy duty scrappers are made on cores which are trimmed on one or more sides. Light duty scrappers are made out of flakes or flake fragments

–    Manuports -  these are stone blocks which have been brought to the site probably for tool making but were not used.

The Acheulean Industrial Complex

•         The Acheulean Industrial complex is the second earliest tool working tradition which dates from about 1.5 m.y.a. and continues to about 200,000 years ago. The term Acheulean was first used by 19^th century French archaeologists Gabriel de Mortillet  to refer to the remnants of a prehistoric industrial culture found near the town of St. Acheul in northern France.

•         In this site an abundance of hand axes and other stone tools which were more sophisticated than those found at the Olduvai Gorge site were discovered.

•         The tool maker of this tradition was Homo erectus. In contrast to Oldowan tools which are confined in Africa, Acheuleun is more widespread across the world. Probably this is due to the movement of Homoerectus out of Africa as suggested by the multiple origin theory.

•         The main tool type of the Acheulean Industry tradition have been categorized as follows:

–    Large cutting tools; these include bifaces hand axes, cleavers and pick like hand axes and knives

–    Heavy duty tools; these includes picks, choppers, polyhedrons, spheroids, and core scrapers.

–    Modified and utilized pieces including cores, flakes, and flake fragments

–    Manuports

–    Tool manufacture waste- these are referred to as debitage, they are different types of cores, flakes, and flake fragments.

•         The Acheulian tools has been divided into two developmental stages or phases based on:

–    Increase in the complex of the tool kit especially in terms of types and classes within types. For example more varieties hand axes.

–    Improvement in the competence in tool manufacturing and better mastery of the raw materials. For example, later stage or phases exhibits better made and more refined tools.

•         Using these two attributes, the Acheulean tools are divided into:

–    Early Acheulean dating to between 1.5 m.y.a. to 700,000.

–    Late Aucheulean dating from to between 700,000 to 200,000 years ago.

The middle stone age

•         The middle stone age began around 200,000 and continued to 30,000 years ago. Middle stone age tools include a range of retouched flake tools especially side scrappers, back knives and points.

•         The technology used to make these tools is known as LEVALLOIS METHOD, that is tools were shaped from prepared cores. In this Levalloisian technology, predetermined  and standardized size flakes could then be knocked off.

•         Tool maker of this period was Homosapiens. Experts believes that these tools were used for working animal hides and to shape wood implements. It is also called the Mousterine tradition or Middle Paleolithic in Europe and Near East.

Late stone age

•         This started around 30,000 to about 500 years ago. There are more standardized tools than previous times. Late stone age is usually characterized by special prepared cores from which blades were removed through indirect percussion. There were also new forms of scrapers, burins and points.

•         Indirect percussion – you put a punch of either wood or another hard material into position and strike it with a hammer stone to get blades of standard size removed.

•         LSA is called upper Paleolithic in Europe. During this period tools of bones and ivory became common for the first time. These include points and needles. By this time people were still mainly hunters and gatherers and fishers. They probably lived in highly mobile bands.

Neolithic and domestication

•         Neolithic refers to the transition period from human culture form of hunting and gathering lifestyle to agriculture and permanent settlement. In this type of culture, people began to produce food rather than merely collect it. Archaeologically, this period is usually called the period of food production / Neolithic revolution.

•         The rise of Neolithic agriculture is unquestionably one of  the most important  events in  human cultural history. Agriculture of food production as archaeologists call it, appeared in and spread from many different regions of the world between 10,000 and 5,000 years ago. From the appearance of human race, until the introduction of agriculture, hunting  and gathering was the only food procurement strategy practiced.

•         Therefore this pre historic shift to food production led to the rise of civilization and the procurement of material wealth beyond the wildest dreams of the hunter and gatherer communities in various parts of the world.

•         This decisive change or turning point was characterized by the use of polished stone tools, development of permanent settlement, pottery making, and domestication of animals and cultivation of grains. Actually all these characteristics are not always present in a given Neolithic culture

The domestication of animals and plants in the old world

•         The earliest Neolithic centers are found in the middle East, a region that today includes Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, as well as Egypt. The region is sometimes referred to as the fertile crescent. Several varieties of domesticated wheat were being grown there after about 8000 BC. Barley, peas and various fruits and nuts are also said to have been cultivated in the middle east.

•         It now well established that the first animals were domesticated in the near East. Dogs were first domesticated before the rise of agriculture around 10000BC. Goats and sheep around 7000BC. Cattle and pigs around 6000BC. Most of the archaeological evidence comes from two important early Neolithic sites of Ali Kosh and Catal Huyuk ( Southern Iran):

–    Evidence of agriculture and herding were found at Ali Kosh site. Wheat and a kind of barley and a huge number of bones from domesticated goats were unearthed t Ali Kosh site. Most of the collected bones were from young goats. This indicated that the adult goats were saved for breeding purposes and while young goats were meant for consumption.

–    After 5500BC we see the appearance of two important innovations, that is irrigation and use of domesticated cattle in agriculture.

–    Small rooms (7 by 10 feet) were excavated at Ali Koshi. Archaelogists were wondering whether people actually spent time or slept in there. They argued that they may have been storage rooms.

–    At Catal Hayuk site, 200 houses have been excavated, this has been an important evidence for the existence of permanent settlement. Farming was well advanced at Catal Huyuk in the sense that wheat, barley and peas were grown in quantity that produced surplus.

TOPIC 7. ARCHAEOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Archaeological determinants of paleoenvironment

•         Paleoenvironment refers to the study of ancient environment. Today's climate is different than that of earlier periods; in fact climate, including vegetation, temperature, and relative humidity, has varied considerably during the time of human habitation of planet earth. Paleoenvironmental reconstruction refers to the investigations which are undertaken to reconstruct the climate and vegetation of a specific time and place.

•         In order to facilitate the reconstruction of ancient environment, archaeologists use a number of archaeological determinants such as the study of geology, botany, polynology, and archaezoology/zoology

–    Botany; plant remains provides excellent clues about past vegetation because they reflect the presence and abundance of individual species of plants. Because the growth of specific plant types is limited by physical conditions such as moisture, temperature and height, their remains can be used to infer past climatic conditions.

–    Zoology; animal remains also responds to environmental conditions and tend to reach optimal population levels in regions that best fulfill their needs.  In this way, areas with huge animal remains such as bones and horn conks can tell a lot about past climate.

–    Geology; geological features can also be used to determine past climate. Geological features that can reflect past climatic processes include:

•     The location of raised river terraces and lake shore beaches which suggest earlier times when water levels were higher.

•     Burial glacial till and moraines deposits, which represents periods when a region may have had much colder climates.

•     Cave deposits where the lower strata are filled with roof spalls from a period when severe cold froze water in rock cracks and broke  the spalls from ceiling.

–    Polynology; is the study of pollen analysis. The sample of pollen can be gathered from the air, water or from deposits including sediments of any age. The conditions and identification of these particles give the polynologist clues to the life, the environment and energetic conditions that produced them.

Cultural Heritage Resources

•         Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).

Cultural Heritage Resource  (C H R):

•         Cultural Heritage Resource is "an object, a site or the location of a traditional societal practice that is of historical, cultural or archaeological significance.

–    Cultural Heritage Resource (CHR) comprises a comprehensive source of reliable information about the conflicting claims that are made on the world’s cultural heritage.

–    It covers such issues as the trade, collection and repatriation of cultural objects, the political appropriation or destruction of cultural heritage, and the threats posed to cultural heritage by urban and rural development projects.

–    The CHR is intended to improve public understanding of these and related issues and in so doing promote the formulation of more effective policy responses.

•         The CHR comprises four inter-linked sections: Chronicle, Reference, Research, and Documentation.

–    Chronicle offers a two-monthly retrospective synthesis of cultural heritage-related news stories that have appeared in the world’s media.

–    Reference provides information that adds cultural, historical and legal contexts to news reported in the Chronicle.

–    Research presents the results of relevant academic research, including CHR initiated and supported projects and syntheses of other research published in the academic literature.

–    Documentation archives downloadable academic papers, legal documents, press releases and other relevant material.

Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment ( C.H.I.A)

•         Is the study to evaluate the impact the proposed development or site alteration will have on the cultural heritage resources and to recommend an overall approach to the conservation of the resources.

Impact assessments are an established process for:

–    ensuring that proponents assume primary responsibility for protection of cultural and heritage values that may be affected by their proposals

–    forming a basis for statutory decisions on whether a proposal meets sustainable development principles, and if so, relevant heritage management and monitoring

–    incorporating community and stakeholder views in assessment and decision-making processes.

An impact assessment involves:

–    proponents taking responsibility for ensuring protection of
identified cultural and heritage values that may be affected
by proposals. As a result of an impact assessment, proposals may be modified to avoid or minimize harm

–    decision-makers who provide a basis for decisions on whether a proposal safeguards cultural heritage 

–    stakeholders who provide community views and needs for
inclusion

–    all participants in determining the basis for cultural heritage management and monitoring if a proposal proceeds.

•         A cultural heritage impact assessment is prepared to provide a detailed and holistic framework for decision making and for the implementation of a coherent set of appropriate actions for the conservation of cultural heritage sites.
Impact assessments highlight the many issues facing sites in terms of site management, conservation, monitoring and maintenance and the environment in and around the site.

TOPIC 8. ARCHAELOGY AND SOCIETY

•         Economic development:

–    the economic impact in situ of excavations and restoration works can be estimated in terms of local job creation. Indeed these activities offer opportunities of seasonal jobs creation, and the wages paid can be superior to the local and average salary in agriculture or industry

–    Archaeological sites are also tourist centers. The Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania for example attract tourist from all over the world. In this way, the country earns a lot of foreign currencies.

•         Social development:

–    impacts of archaeological excavations on local settings can be estimated in terms of interactions between archaeologists and local populations. On the one hand, from the beginning of the twentieth century, and despite the colonial and imperialist context in which they worked, archaeologists seem to have had personal relations with native populations and have contributed to the improvement of the social, cultural and economic conditions of the latter.

–    Additionally excavations can foster mutual exchanges between archaeologists and local populations, who can help archaeologists with the interpretation of remains with their own knowledge and local memory

–    On the other hand, the attitudes of local populations are often friendly towards foreign archaeologists, because archaeological digs bring opportunities in terms of employment and enable local populations to extend their knowledge of archaeological remains

•         Cultural development:

–    The local population usually do recognize the cultural values of archaeological remains, considering them as part of their history and formation of their identity, even in the case of the remains from a distant past or a different culture.

Basic Readings

•         Fagan, B. (1970). In the Beginning. New York Longman

•         Feder, K. L. (2000). The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory. California: Mayfield Publishing Company

•         Joukowsky, M. (1980). A Complete Manual of Field Archaeology: Tools and Technique of Fieldwork for Archaeologists. Englewood Cliffs: Printice-Hall.

•         Merrina, N. (ed) (2004). Public Archaeology. London: Routledge.

•         Renfrew, C. and Bahn, P (1991). Archaeology. Theories, Methods and Practice.

•         Sharer R. and W. Ashmore (2003). Archaeology. Discovering our past. California: McGraw.

•         Ember, C. R and Ember, M. (1999). Anthropology. Prentice Hall Upper, Inc: USA.