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Wednesday, September 10, 2014
To what extent was commercial revolution an essential pre-requisite for industrial revolution in Britain?
Industrial
revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from
about 1760`s to sometimes between 1820`s.
This transition included going from hand production method to machines, new
chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiencies of
water power, increase use of steam power and the development of machine tools.
Landes (1969:40)
Commercial
revolution, refer to the great increase in commerce, in Europe that began in
the late middle age. It was a period of
European expansion, colonialism and merchantalism.it was succeeded in the
mid-18th century by the
industrial revolution. However the European economic system had begun to change
in the 14th century, partially as a result of the black death and crusade. Beginning with
crusades, European`s rediscovered spices, silks and other commodity rare in
Europe. European nation through voyages
were looking for new trade in the 15th c and 16th
c which helped to build international trade networks. The commercial revolution
is marked by increase in general commerce and in the growth of financial
services such as banks, insurance and investment. Cunningham (1892:12). Black
death led to under population which affected the system of agriculture, the
manorial land was sold and such sell
attracted the bourgeois (from French
word referring to the dominant class, emerging with commerce) who wanted to buy
land, former common land were fenced
(enclosure) and increased the efficiency of rising livestock (mainly sheep`s
wool for the textile industry). The progress of industry and the development
of commerce are so
closely interwoven and mutually influence each other in so many ways (Mantoux (1961:91)
The
following are the contributions of commercial revolution to industrial
revolution in Britain and through these, are seen as pre-requisite.
Britain
transformation from an economic backwater into Europe`s leading economy with
sophisticated commercial and financial institution and a large manufacturing
sector occurred during mercantile era of growing long distance trade. Two
important issues have long attracted, trade developed in the context of
mercantilist imperial regulation, conflict and warfare among European empires.
Secondly, Britain`s-and more widely, Europe`s-growing trade was intertwined with imperialism. In the New world the
conquerors displaced indigenous societies and enslaved the population to
exploit the mines. Success in war and imperial exploitation were keys to
Europe`s economic success. For example, in 18th c imperial war
Britain adopted blue water strategy that exploited its island. Shipping and
commerce were central to the strategy’s success. Merchant shipping provided man
power for war time fleets. By financing their imports, by selling food, raw
material and commercial services to the staple exporting colonies they allowed
Britain to expand export of manufactured goods rather than the traditional
woolen textile to a much greater extent that would have been possible with only
bilateral trade. Also slave trade and the sugar plantation yielded great profit
that played a key role in the mobilization of capital for Britain’s industrial revolution.
Harley (2004)
Also
commercial revolution led to the development of towns (urbanization), the
financial development that produced Lombard street which was the street of
banks including the bank of England, private bank, joint stock bank and discount
houses sheltered once innovative of England decentralized regional banking
system. As Nishimura (1971:45) quoted in Quinn (2004) London was also where
banks that needed cash sold bills of exchange. In addition to commercial banks
London had discount houses whose sole form of lending was discounting bill of
exchange were held by London discount houses. Also London acted as the hub that
integrated the region into large financial system also place to sell bill of
exchange because the money market was so deep. Collin (1988:151-3) in Quinn
(2004) the robust competition meant provincial banks, along with commercial and
industrial concerns could rely on being able to sell a ‘good’ bill in London.
Also
contributed to the development of technology in terms of payment, in early
modern Europe the most advanced ways of paying for things were coins, bills of
exchange and bank transfer. These three ways of paying formed the technological
frontier of the early modern payment system, and in Britain, before 1688 only
London offered all three. From 1688 -1873 Britain decreased both the cost and
risk of making payment through innovations like bank notes, clearing house and
branch banking. The innovation by transfer by endorsement diffused across
mercantile Europe and jumped from local payment called the bill of
exchange. Bill of exchange order’s
someone in a distant location to pay a specified sum in the local currency. The
risk of bill was that the acceptor would fail to accept the bill, so innovation
focused on ensuring the credibility of acceptance. Penalties, multi-signature .Banks
were an innovation in lending because most 18th c lending was book
credit extended to purchasers. In 18th c the west riding textile
industry provide an example of the chain of credit that financed most
industries. The textile manufactured could purchase wool directly from the
farmer for the manufacturing of textile industries. Quinn (2004:151-9)
Furthermore,
it contributed to the development in transport which enabled the producer to
increase the extent of his market at will, without other limits than those of
the inhabited world. Through technical improvements solved the difficult of
communication, production was confined to the known of its habitual. Mantoux
(1961:91)
Development
of external market, this seemed to have brought heavier import (raw materials)
and export which spread and circulated everywhere and increased quality of
commodities. Industries were now receiving a sufficient provision needed by
their growing population where by commodities supplied corn to Manchester which
no longer run any risk of shortage. For example until the mid of the 18th
c merchants warehoused and exported Birmingham goods, now Spanish or Russia
firms ordered what they wanted directly from Birmgham. . Mantoux (1961:129)
Foundation
of wealth needed for the industrial revolution. Economic prosperity financed
new forms of technological, social-economic and cultural expression. Whitman
(1975:107)
Conclusion,
Britain early modern economic growth intertwined with an international economy
that was undergoing epochal change. Expanding foreign trade accompanied the increasing
sophistication of the British economy in the centuries before the industrial
revolution. Furthermore, the rapid growth of the industries that transformed
the British economy and its society in the early nineteenth century in response
to the new technologies of the industrial revolution owed much to export
market.
REFERENCE
Cunningham. W (1892). The Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern times,
University
Press
Lands, D.S (1969).Unbound promethens: Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1760
to the present,
Cambridge University: New york .
Harley, K.C ‘Trade,
Discovery, Mercantalism and Technology’ in Roderic Floud
and
Paul Johnson’s, The Cambridge Economic
History of Modern Britain, Vol 1, London Cambridge University Press,
2004.
Mantoux. P. (1961). Industrial Revolution in the 18th
century, Methuen Co Ltd: New york
Quinn.S, ‘Money, Finance and Capital Market’,in
Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson’s, The
Cambridge Economic
History of Modern Britain, Vol 1,
London: Cambridge University Press, 2004Describe the four main categories of archaeological phenomena
According to
Fagan (2009:4) defined archaeology as the scientific study of the human past,
of ancient human behavior from the earliest times right up to the present. Most
of archaeology is part of a much wider discipline “anthropology” which studies all aspects of humanity,
ancient and modern. But archaeologists are unique among scientist in that, they
study changes in human culture over long period of time.
Daniel (1981) in
Fagan (1985) defined archaeology as the study of material remains and human culture
using archaeological theory and techniques.
Generally,
archaeology is the study of human culture using past cultural phenomena or
present cultural phenomena.
The main concern
of the archaeologist is to study of the basic categories of archaeological
remains which are artifact, ecofact , feature and structure. The following are
the description of these archaeological phenomena.
According to
Renfrew.C and Paul.B (1996:45) defined
artifact as human made or modified portable objects such as stone tools,
pottery and metal weapons. Artifacts are both inorganic and organic, are
organic in the sense that if human modified bones and used it as a tool. Sharer
R.J and Wendy.A (2003:353-378) groups artifact into two categories. Lithic
tools and pottery, where by lithic artifacts refers to manufactured tools from
stone, and the first stone tool used by
ancestor of modern human were probably unmodified rocks or cobbles used only
once for tasks such as hammering and pounding and lithic technology has its
roots in the first attempt to modify and shape stone to make tools. For example
flake tools and blades
Pottery, originated with human first
attempt to settled life. There were
three basic technique for making pottery from clay, which are mold forming,
hand forming and wheel forming. Through these archaeologist may use the remains
and recognize the past human culture; for example hand forming describe small
scale production and it was for domestic use.
Wheel forming describe potential mass production and produced by
specialist. Pottery are analyzed by using stylistic , form and function as well
as technological analysis.
Metal artifact like gold, silver and
lead survive well, copper and bronze with a low quality alloy are acidic soil
and can become so oxidized that only a green deposit or stain is left.
inorganic material archaeologically survive better ,for example stone, fired
clay such as pottery as well as metal.
Ecofacts,
include animal bones and plant remains but also soil and sediments, all of
which may shed light on past human activities. They can indicate, for example,
what people ate
or the environmental condition under
which they lived. Renfrew.C and Paul.B (1996:55) explain that the organic
material are largely by the matrix (the surrounding materials) and by climate
(local and regional) with the occasional influence of natural disaster such as
volcanic eruption which are often far
from disastrous for archaeologist.
Sharer R.J and Wendy. A (2003:391-400) categorize
ecofacts into flora remains (plant), fauna remains (animal) and soil. Flora
remains include two basic categories, microbotanicals (pollen and rhytolith)
and macrobotanicals (seads, leaves, casts). Indirect evidence of plant used can
also be greened from such sources as pictorial representation, for example
Egyptian murals illustrating wheat. Fauna remains in archaeological context
take a number of forms, from whole specimen such as mummies to partial ones
such as bones. Bones and teeth are the most commonly recovered fauna artifacts.
Ecofact on the
other side usually possess no overt evidence of human activity, or, if they do
such evidence may be difficult to assess. Thus it is certainly possible that
some animal bones , plant remains, pollens and other ecofactual material found
in archaeological situation even when they associated with artifacts and
feature. Taphonomy is supposed to be used to distinguish human from nonhuman
activities, because human acts (culture) such as hunting, butchering and tool
making are reflected in bone and how
they can be contrasted with effects of
other agents.
Once species
have been identified, the analysis of
both floral and faunal sample can yield information on ancient environmental
condition, subsistence technique , diet and other activities (medical, ritual,
mortuary behavior). Human remains provide direct evidence about the nutritional
and hearth status of ancient population , information vital not only to understand
the past but also to modern society (in studies of the origin and evolution of
human disease). Soil and sediments especially the analysis of soil matrices can
yield clues (truth) to the presence or absence of past human activity and information about ancient land use and
environmental conditions.
Features, are non-potable artifact, that is, they are
artifacts that cannot be recovered from the setting in which they are found.
Feature may be composed of artifact and ecofact. In analyzing feature, position
and arrangement are key aspects of features. For this reason they cannot be
removed without destroying their original form. For example, hearths, burial
storage pits and roads. Sharer.R.J and
Wendy.A (2003:121)
Features may be examined into simple and
composite feature such as the remains of building. The latter (whether house
storage, building, temple, palace) are usually revealed archaeologically by the
patterned arrangement of floor, post holes, walls and doorways as well as by
associated simple feature such as hearths and refuse pits. Sharer R.J and Wendy.A (2003:412)
Feature shall be divided into two
somewhat different categories that have possible behavioral implications;
constructed feature and cumulative feature. Constructed feature are those that
were deliberately built to house or facilitate some activity or set of
activity. They may provide an enclosed shelter, such as a house, or they may
simply define or create an area appropriate to specific activities, such as
agricultural terraces or boat-docking pier. Cumulative feature include entities
that do not seem to have a planned structure to them. They may grow by
accretion, as middens or workshop do, or subtraction as quarries do.
Structure,
refer to any constructed remains which were made, used or modified by human, or
any remains which represent construction material. For example, constructed
graves, houses, ceremonial structures, earliest religious structures. Structure
is a complex feature.
Conclusion,
the above were the basic categories of archaeological remains, in classifying
and analyzing, archaeologist should associate knowledge from other discipline
in order to study the material culture of the human past.
REFERENCE
Fagan B. M (1985), In the beginning: An introduction to archaeology. Little, brown and
company. Canada.
Fagan B. M. (2009), Archaeology: A brief introduction, 10th Ed. Pearson
Education Inc.
Newyork
Sharer R.J and W. Ashmore (2003), Archaeology: Discovering our past, 3rd Ed.
McGraw Hill Company. Newyork
Renfrew. C and Paul.B (1996),Archaeology. Theory Method and Practice, 2nd
Ed. Thames and
Hudson Ltd.London
Oral history in Tanzania
James leonard
giblin has been the member of history department since 1986. He received PHD at
the University of Wiscosin at Madson in 1986. His primary research interested
in Tanzania at east Africa in the 19th c and 20th c. his
first book is “The politics of environmental control in northeastern Tanzania
1840-1940” published by university of Pennsylvania press, and the second book
is a “History of ecluded, making family refuge in 19th c Tanzania
1890’s-1960’s”.
The main purpose
was to explicate the condition of poverty in Handeni district and the main
sources or causes of this condition, where he discovered two major cause as
climatic change (drought) and change of patronage
ORAL SOURCES USED IN THE BOOK
Eye witness
account, Giblin in his book use eye witness as he interviewed the people of
Handeni who were elders who witnessed
the events and provide an explanation of the death of who was a chief of
Uzigua, Abdala hamani Msede who witnessed Mtunte hanged by German.
He
said “after Mtunte imprisoned the German announced…. We want all musical instruments, any instruments
at all, even if people only rattles or do the selo la dence with singing done
during female puberty rites……… we will see how Mtunte is hanging. There were
very many women there; they were told that when the man is hanged they should
make a great noise. All these I saw myself”.
Pg 102-103
Other people who witnessed the hanging of Mtunte were Ernest Mkomwa
and Abed Juma.
Narratives,
Giblin use narratives to reconstruct the history of Tanzania, Asuman
Nyokka,narrates on how maintenance of the favorable disease environment was an
obligation of all people regardless the patrons or poor. Not only the rich but
also the poor who push (Wanawasukumiza) their affluent neighbors to distribute
resources, are responsible for prosperity. The interviewees also provides information
about the availability of labour in rubber and cotton plantations in Uzigua,for
instance, Omary Gumbo of (“Kwiji”),Omary Maligwa of Kidiza of (Gombeko) and Idd
Sam Shehehill said that,“Households were given collective responsibility for
providing plantation labour,an arrangement that created a powerful constraint
against fight and desertion since truants placed co-residents in danger of
being punished by planters
Another oral
source is the use of poems. Poems are well used in this book;
The song or poem
portrays the sorrowful Sonyo as he witnessed the departure of his dependents,
meaning that European rule had so diminished respect for elders, that even
their own children then dared bring accusations against them in German courts.
“Sonyo mwana mnyamala kuila kumwa kizungu……
Wakizungu hauna wenyewe…..aingia mtoto
akahukumu, mwanao aingia mtoto ahukumu”. (.J.Giblin, 1992, p97)
Meaning of the
poem (Don’t cry, Sonyo, about the Europeans …. (for) Europeans have their own
ways …..(or) about a child who comes in
to accuse you, even if it’s your own child that accuses you”).
Insufficient
information was another challenge. For instance, on page number 159, the author
shows that it was difficult to assess the locust plague that attacked the
region in 1932-1935 because little is known about the origin of the locust
plague as well as the damage of the locust plague. The author says,” Although
evidence from Uzigua during the 1930s indicates that the locust plague caused
widely varying amount of crop damage and
struck neighboring villages at different times, a settlement might escape
locust depredations altogether while its neighbors sustained heavy losses”.
Contradiction of
information, especially when the author collected different information on the
same event, for example the root cause of execution death of differently by
various informants. Some argue that Mtunte’s offence was to sanction the
killing of the “Kigego” while other accounts however say that Mtunte killed the
child of Mchekumbo, his maasai dependent. Pg. 104s
There was also a
challenge concerning language barriers. The author faced such a problem and he
decided to use interpreters in interpreting Swahili and Zigua languages
He succeeded to
change the former views that the people of this region are poor because they
are lazy. He also succeeded to use both oral and written sources, records of
missionary activities and documents of government activities to reconstruct the
history of the Zigua region. He provides the historical accounts, such as the
environmental changes and change in political patronage as reasons for the
underdevelopment of the region.
REFERENCE
Giblin J.
(1992), The politics of environmental
control in northeastern Tanzania 1840-1940.
USA:
university of Pennsylvania press
ASSESSING LAND CONFLICT IN TANZANIA
About
80% of the entire population in Tanzania comprises farmers and pastoralists
that live in rural areas in which their life depend on land for conducting
different economic and social activities such crop production and animal
keeping, the prominent pastoralists society in Tanzania are like Maasai and
Mang`ati tribes. And some of the Pastoralists have been using traditional
method of livestock keeping while some of them tend to move from one area to
another with large herds of cattle looking for pastures and wetlands for their
animals. Example in Usangu area in Mbeya region, Kilosa in Morogoro region that
these areas were invaded by pastoralist with a large number of animals. On 9th
March 2006,President Jakaya Kikwete ordered the deportation of pastoralists to
Lindi region as deliberate measure to rescue the Usangu plain to become dry
since the areas is favorable for Agriculture. These movement of pastoralists
invade farming land created hostility between pastoralists and farmers. Example
in 2000,a group of pastoralists invaded in Kilosa and this led to the eruption
of conflicts between two different
societies(pastoralists and farmers) that led to the loss of life.
According
to January (2008) cited in Kaplain
(2000) the term conflict has been defined as the breakdown of the state
authority or a rush to seize control over precious natural resources in an
increasingly unregulated market. The breakdown of the state authority in terms
of control, access and ownership. In other words conflict
is the disputes or misunderstanding or disagreement or dissatisfaction over
natural resources. Conflict can be in ownership, access or in uses. Conflict
occurs because there are different natural resource users.
It
is also defined as the relationship among two or more opposing parties, whether
marked by violence or not based on actual or perceived difference in needs,
interests and goals(Means et al,2002:13)
Conflicts
as defined by Coser (1956) are the struggles over values and claims to status,
power and resources in which the aim of the opponents is to neutralize, injure,
or eliminate their rivals. It is also
defined as the arousal of two or more strong motives that cannot be solved
together. The conflicts might occur when the individuals struggling over the
utilization of the natural resources, therefore it is a natural phenomenon that
is caused by divergent interests.
Conflicts
over natural resources can therefore be seen to be the result of diverse
interests, goals and aspirations that individuals or groups within legally
established and secluded environments have, which all too often resulted in
either positive or negative impacts on the use value of the area. Attempts have
been made to analyze conflict patterns, behaviour and response to conflicts.
Conflict
management is the practice of identifying and handling conflicts in a sensible,
fair and efficient manner. It require skills such as effective communication,
problem solving and negotiation by focusing on interests
(Kenneth,2004).Conflict management aims to prevent the eruption of destructive
conflicts
Many
authors in different researches and books have tried to explain the different
natural resource conflicts as explained below
Mtwale
(2002) in his study about conflict between pastoralists and farmers over land
use analyses the causes and effects of conflicts over land use between farmers
and pastoralist
He
argue that one of the core causes of land use conflicts in Tanzania is
government instability to resolve conflicts whenever they occurred.
The
author pointed out that corruption and silence of government authorities are
also the major sources of conflicts. He shows that killing that occur in Kilosa
is the sign of the government authorities adopt the theory of “let us see the
attitude” that enhance conflicts.
He
discussed that the conflict in natural resources especially land are caused by
Lack of people`s participation in
decision making on land allocation;
Existence of numerous pieces of
legislations on land matters, liberalization policies and conflicts arising
from different mode of production
John
(2008) in his study on effectiveness of conflicts management methods considered
conflict of land into two dimension
which are conflict as of interests and conflict as competition.To him the rapid
population increase or growth which leads to the acute competition for scarce resources,
extension, intensification on Agriculture and change in socio-economic
activities.
The
author holds a view that colonization of rangelands by farmers for agriculture
by farmers for agriculture use has reduced access to the grazing and resulted
to the conflict between farmers and herders. He argues that uncertainty over
property rights; privatization and state policy on land are also the causes of
conflicts. He views that corruption and poverty is the biggest causal factors
for the land use conflicts.
Frequent
confrontation in land is vital problem that is caused by different factors as
discussed by certain researchers. The following are the some of the factors
that increases the tension of conflicts among the groups in the specific
society.
Unevenly
distribution of land resource, the land conflict in Tanzania is emanating from
unequal distribution of land between pastoralists and farmers; in which
improper allocation of land resource between them lead to one group to move
where the conflict begins. Some author argued that the colonization of
rangelands by farmers for Agriculture use has reduced access to the grazing and
resulted to the conflicts between farmers and herders (John, 2008).This unequal
distribution of land is substantiated by the recent incident of the group of
herders who moved from their herds to other areas due to lack of grazing
pastures in their areas. Also Benjaminsen et al (2009:431:39) argued that the land areas allocated to the
pastoralists are not large enough, leading headers to search for pasture and
water outside pastured village areas
In
other hand, the land conflicts in most areas are caused due to the climatic
change where there is unproductive land for cultivation of their crops and
hence they shift from their unproductive land to productive land. Environmental
change may involve land and water degradation, overexploitation clearing or
drainage, or climate change. Increasing demands have multiple social and
economic dimensions, including population growth, changing consumption
patterns, trade liberalization, rural enterprise development, and changes in
technology and land use.
Implicit
conflicts are those in which communities are affected by a process of
environmental degradation they do not recognize [or] although they might be
aware of the degradation, they are unable to associate it with the activity of
specific social agents. The environmental conflict is thus made explicit when
communities establish an immediate logical connection between environmental
degradation and the activities of certain social agents.(Ascerlad 1992,p.35).
Lack
of peoples` participation during policy and laws formulation even when they are
invited their views are not given high priority. Views and demands of the
citizens are not taken and included in the laws which lead to the occurrence of
the new land conflict source being the laws. The conflicts of land between farmers and pastoralist in most
areas in Tanzania are caused by lack of
participation between the stakeholders, in which there is a tendency of local government leaders to make decisions on
land issues without participation with the land users(farmers and
pastoralists).Since the independence time
the Republic Government of Tanzania has been using force in demanding
the villagers and other land users to leave land they own for other uses mostly
termed as for public demands such economic growth. The events of establishment
and redistribution of land to the public corporations such as National
Agricultural and Food Corporation (NAFCO) and National Ranching Company (NARCO)
as well as National parks and Game Reserved Areas went together with violation
of villagers rights on land which led to the occurrence of multiple conflicts
over land among the villagers and the reserved areas. The concrete example is
in Rufiji district whereby the villagers of Mloka village are in conflict with
the management of Selous Game Reserve for years now. Conflicts linked to
wildlife policy, one of the wildlife policy objectives is to continue
establishment of protected areas and maintenance of existing ones in order to
enhance biological diversity. The issue then is that land use for wildlife
competes with other uses such as farming, grazing, and settlement which lead to
conflict over the same land. The concrete example is in Usangu plain where the
Game Reserves grew and took pastoral dry season grazing areas. This then became
the key cause of the forced movement of pastoralist from Ihefu Valley in search
of the secure and peaceful places. Actually it is good and acceptable to
protect the natural resources and environment but the government has the
responsibilities to inform the public on the new regulation enacted for that
purpose rather than humiliating their rights which make them aggressive and
lead to the conflict extending conflict between the people and the government
institutions
Nepotism
and corruption also increase the hostility
struggling for land. According to Haque (2004:5),the term corruption has
been defined as the illegal or unauthorized, profiteering by officials who
exploit their positions for person gain. Therefore in most areas that are
associated with conflicts in Tanzania are highly influenced with the corruption
and nepotism of the government and public officials. The land conflicts are
associated between two groups and normally are pastoralists and farmers in
which the pastoralists are considered to have economically power than farmers
which is used to bribe the government official and leaders during making
decisions. According to Misana et al(1997)viewed corruption as the the biggest
causal of the conflicts, since the resource are scarcity. Mtwale (2008) in his
research argued that the corruption between the village leaders and district
officials are the major causes of land conflicts that exist Kilosa that lead to
the killing, he said that “village leaders allow pastoralists to settle in the
hamlets without farmers permission”.The problem of corruption as the causal of conflicts
in Tanzania is also reported in different mass media such as Radio station and
newspaper. Forexample, Raia mwema newspaper (25th December, 2013)
reported that “tatizo ni rushwa ya
wafugaji dhidi ya wakulima”(corruption is the problem among the pastoralists
and farmers),the pastoralists are seemed to use money to the local government
officials to bribe farmers, some of the leader were reported to receive the
corruption from the pastoralists in order to allow them to enter the livestock and herds to land of farmers.
Rapid population growth and poverty also
increase the hostility between the people in the particular community. The
increases of either number people or livestock lead to the scarcity of land
resources, and hence people start to fight for land. Hence this competition for
land between the pastoralists and farmers led to the conflicts. According to Mtwale
(2002) in his research argued that “population increase from birth and migration
of pastoralists who practice transhumance has become increasingly important in
Kilosa district (Morogoro) has lead fight of land resources.
Another
issue that is associated with the conflicts is poor governance and integrity of
bureaucrats. The dysfunctional land management and the poor governance
institutions, including a lack of transparency especially in public land
acquisition also the weak structure for checking land grabbing also the
exclusion of the disadvantaged(Wehrmann,2008).In governance also the issue of
delayed and unfair compensation increases tension on land use. In the
constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania (1977) the Land Act of 1999;
the land Acquisition 1967 are explicit on the issue of payment of fair and
prompt compensation before land or property can be acquired for private use these
provisions are often observed, this situation of delayed up to five years or
more are commonly after valuation have been done. For instance the valuation
of land property at Kipawa,an area
proposed for the expansion of Mwalimu Nyerere International Airport in Dar es
salaam was done in 1997,but payments were made only in 2010.Hence this
situation create the land conflicts between the government and citizen.
The
land conflicts between the pastoralists and farmers are also influenced by politicians.
They have power to influence one group to demand the resources to other group
and where the conflicts begins especially during the election campaigns the
candidate provide several promises concerned several issues and some of it
increases hostility among the society. According to Benjaminsen et al (2009)
argued on the influence of politician to the occurrence of the conflicts
between pastoralists and farmers in the society, he said that “in 2000 General election, the ward councilor
promised the farmers who were the majority that if he were re-elected he would
make sure that the Maasai were evicted from the area. Hence after election and
he was re-elected the conflicts started between farmers and the Maasai, therefore
the conflicts in a specific areas are associated with the influence of
politicians.
Incompatible
sectorial objectives and power overlapping of the government institution on
land use also increases the conflicts in the area, in this perception the
government decentralize the authority to the local government but this
decentralization increase misunderstanding among natural resources
jurisdiction. For instance the local community were given authority of making decisions in Ngorongoro but in real
sense all decisions are made by the Tanzania National Park Authority (TANAPA)
therefore the local government in a specific locality has a power to make
decisions on the land use and hence allow people to conduct their activities
around the protected area while the TANAPA limit to conduct any activities
around the National parks and hence led to the conflict between the society and
the TANAPA, and also incompatibility of sectorial objectives on land use for
instance there is a frequent contradictions between the ministries objectives
on the land use that lead to the conflicts among the people, also the political and economic systems change
including the nationalization or
privatization of land increases the
conflict within society on the access of
land. The poor policy in agriculture sector and livestock sector also is the basis and fundamental causes of farmers and pastoralists conflicts
(Ndangala,1991).For all institutions, the lack of implementation of policies is
the crucial point towards the land conflicts.
Another
key factor for land conflicts is lack of education between farmers and
pastoralists in society. In case of farmers we consider the poor methods of
farming in which the farmers tend to own large areas for conducting their
activities and hence the land become scarce for pastoralists to graze their
livestock and hence the conflict occurs, also the pastoralists have large
number of livestock compared to the available land for pastures and therefore
due to the scarcity of land they tend to invade the farmers areas(land) is where
conflicts begin. Also the poor understanding of laws and rights of people in
the society contributes much to the occurrence of conflicts; this is because
there is laws and rights that govern the land use management. According to HAKI
ARDHI (2009:3) argued that “Lack of public awareness and knowledge on land
laws. Although Land Act No.4 and village land Act No.5.1999 have marked a
decade since their enactment, still the two pieces are not yet known to
majority land users. This includes the land disputes settlements Act 2002”.
Although
the conflict theorists agree that conflict is unavoidable for any society a
crucial step towards the reduction of land conflicts is better understand the
apparent demands and interests of conflicting parties; This can be reduced by
using various tools as governmental level or individual level, therefore the
following are the ways that can be used to reduce the frequent occurrence of
land conflicts in certain society.
Formation of land disputes
resolution bodies.The government must create the bodies and institutions that
will deal with the land disputes resolution from the traditional authorities, local
and national government, as well as judiciary. And these bodies must be given a
necessarily mandate and power to resolve land conflicts; therefore it could be
worth discussing adding mandate and functions to competent bodies dealing with
land issues. Besides the power overlap between the levels of authorities must
be reformed in order to reduce the power interference in the decision making
over land. For instance the land administrators at the district level should
respect and value the decisions made reached by the village authority because
those are the peoples` decisions over their land according to the laws.
Surveying and land registration to
solve boundary conflicts and to protect against the illegal expropriation. Land
registration is generally more important for conflict prevention, the multiple
sales of land, sales of somebody else`s private property, or state concessions
on private land only occur when land is not registered. Accordingly surveying
and registration should follow the disputes settlement of these land conflicts
so as to secure the agreement and prevent a renewal of the conflicts.
Developing public awareness
campaigns on land matters. Many land conflicts can be managed and if not
avoided at least mitigated or make less severe if the provisions are made
against them in time. Hence it is crucial to be aware of those changes and
occurrence that have potential to trigger land conflicts once the cause of
conflict has been identified, the extent of possible land conflicts and the
scope of their social, economic, ecological and political consequences should
be roughly calculated and immediately communicated to decision-makers and
responsible land management experts. Hence public awareness campaigns will help
to reduce the occurrence of conflicts in which the disputes and tensions arise
due to lack of public knowledge regarding the existing laws and rights. Moreover
the education should be provided to people concerned the proper use of land
between the farmers and pastoralists that eventually will reduce the
environmental degradation. Also participation of the majority and stakeholders
in decision making concerned the land matters that will reduce the occurrence
of conflicts in the society.
Promoting
good and land governance also can reduce the occurrence of the conflicts within
society. Land conflicts are the visible manifestation or outcome of the often
invisible power and politics concerning access and use of land. Governance of
land is rather obscure and often threatened by corruption, so to prevent land
conflicts the land governance has to be transparent, fair and sustainable. Good
land governance therefore requires the hones and serious application of certain
principles to land policy, land related legislation, state land management,
land administration, land reforms and land conflict resolutions. Therefore a
key governance principle for the prevention of land conflicts is equity.
“There
is no substitute for dealing with grievances and demands early in their history;
such is the normal business of politics and governance”(Zartman,1991:301).
Also
the establishment or strengthening monitoring mechanism to identify, document
and address land conflict quickly. The data collected through such mechanisms
can be useful for monitoring trends, analyzing types of conflicts and the
outcomes of any interventions, documenting land conflicts can also contribute
to the restoration of land and property rights in the future.
The economic development of any
country depends on land, and land conflicts among the people are not easily being
solved it needs an extra attention compared to other conflicts in country. Therefore
there must be deliberate actions and decisions in solving the land conflicts.
Each group of land users, the pastoralists and the crop producers should be
considered their values of each other in order to avoid the daily land
conflicts. The farmers should respect and protect the land allocated for
pastoral activities and the pastoralists should respect the area allocated for
the farmers. This conflicts resolution should not left to the government
institutions and officials only, but there must be the collaboration from all sectors
(public and private sectors) and incorporate and consultation of the whole
community in any decisions made over the land use .
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