What was the contribution of Indian Ocean Trade in the rise of Coastal city states along the current Tanzania coast

The Indian Ocean Trade began with small trading settlements around 800 A.D., and ended in the 1500's when Portugal invaded and tried to run the trade for its own profit. As trade intensified between Africa and Asia, powerful city-states flourished along the eastern coast of Africa,(Kimambo, I.N and Temu, A. J. (eds). (1969). These city-states traded with inland kingdoms like Great Zimbabwe to obtain gold, ivory, and iron. These materials were then sold to places like India, Southeast Asia, and China via the Indian Ocean Trade, and could be sold at a profit because they were scarce in Asian countries. At the same time, the East African city-states were buying items from Asia. Many residents of the city-states were willing to pay high prices for cotton, silk, and porcelain objects. These items were expensive because they were not available in Africa at the time

Aman Makoye: Experiement Research

Aman Makoye: Experiement Research: It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or...

Experiement Research

It is a collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes. Generally, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable.

The experimental method Is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.

Experimental Research is often used where:

There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect)

There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect)

The magnitude of the correlation is great.

(Reference: en.wikipedia.org)

The word experimental research has a range of definitions. In the strict sense, experimental research is what we call a true experiment.

This is an experiment where the researcher manipulates one variable, and control/randomizes the rest of the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups, and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. It is also important to know what variable(s) you want to test and measure.

A very wide definition of experimental research, or a quasi experiment, is research where the scientist actively influences something to observe the consequences. Most experiments tend to fall in between the strict and the wide definition.

A rule of thumb is that physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology tend to define experiments more narrowly than social sciences, such as sociology and psychology, which conduct experiments closer to the wider definition.

Aims of Experimental Research.

Experiments are conducted to be able to predict phenomenons. Typically, an experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind of causation. Experimental research is important to society - it helps us to improve our everyday lives.

Identifying the Research Problem.

After deciding the topic of interest, the researcher tries to define the research problem. This helps the researcher to focus on a more narrow research area to be able to study it appropriately. Defining the research problem helps you to formulate a research hypothesis, which is tested against the null hypothesis.

The research problem is often operationalizationed, to define how to measure the research problem. The results will depend on the exact measurements that the researcher chooses and may be operationalized differently in another study to test the main conclusions of the study.

An ad hoc analysis is a hypothesis invented after testing is done, to try to explain why the contrary evidence. A poor ad hoc analysis may be seen as the researcher's inability to accept that his/her hypothesis is wrong, while a great ad hoc analysis may lead to more testing and possibly a significant discovery.

Constructing the Experiment.

There are various aspects to remember when constructing an experiment. Planning ahead ensures that the experiment is carried out properly and that the results reflect the real world, in the best possible way.

Sampling Groups to Study

Sampling groups correctly is especially important when we have more than one condition in the experiment. One sample group often serves as a control group, whilst others are tested under the experimental conditions.

Deciding the sample groups can be done in using many different sampling techniques. Population sampling may chosen by a number of methods, such as randomization, "quasi-randomization" and pairing.

Reducing sampling errors is vital for getting valid results from experiments. Researchers often adjust the sample size to minimize chances of random errors.

Here are some common sampling techniques:

1.     probability sampling

2.     non-probability sampling

3.     simple random sampling

4.     convenience sampling

5.     stratified sampling

6.     systematic sampling

7.     cluster sampling

8.     sequential sampling

9.     disproportional sampling

10. judgmental sampling

11. snowball sampling

12. quota sampling

Creating the Design

The research design is chosen based on a range of factors. Important factors when choosing the design are feasibility, time, cost, ethics, measurement problems and what you would like to test. The design of the experiment is critical for the validity of the results.

Typical Designs and Features in Experimental Design.

Pretest-Posttest Design.

Check whether the groups are different before the manipulation starts and the effect of the manipulation. Pretests sometimes influence the effect.

Control Group.

Control groups are designed to measure research bias and measurement effects, such as the Hawthorne Effect or the Placebo Effect. A control group is a group not receiving the same manipulation as the experimental group. Experiments frequently have 2 conditions, but rarely more than 3 conditions at the same time.

Randomized Controlled Trials.

Randomized Sampling, comparison between an Experimental Group and a Control Group and strict control/randomization of all other variables

Solomon Four-Group Design.

With two control groups and two experimental groups. Half the groups have a pretest and half do not have a pretest. This to test both the effect itself and the effect of the pretest.

Between Subjects Design.

Grouping Participants to Different Conditions

Within Subject Design.

Participants Take Part in the Different Conditions - See also: Repeated Measures Design

Counterbalanced Measures Design.

Testing the effect of the order of treatments when no control group is available/ethical

Matched Subjects Design.

Matching Participants to Create Similar Experimental- and Control-Groups

Double-Blind Experiment
Neither the researcher, nor the participants, know which is the control group. The results can be affected if the researcher or participants know this.

Bayesian Probability
Using bayesian probability to "interact" with participants is a more "advanced" experimental design. It can be used for settings were there are many variables which are hard to isolate. The researcher starts with a set of initial beliefs, and tries to adjust them to how participants have responded

Pilot Study

It may be wise to first conduct a pilot-study or two before you do the real experiment. This ensures that the experiment measures what it should, and that everything is set up right.

Minor errors, which could potentially destroy the experiment, are often found during this process. With a pilot study, you can get information about errors and problems, and improve the design, before putting a lot of effort into the real experiment.

If the experiments involve humans, a common strategy is to first have a pilot study with someone involved in the research, but not too closely, and then arrange a pilot with a person who resembles the subject(s). Those two different pilots are likely to give the researcher good information about any problems in the experiment.

Conducting the Experiment

An experiment is typically carried out by manipulating a variable, called the independent variable, affecting the experimental group. The effect that the researcher is interested in, the dependent variable(s), is measured.

Identifying and controlling non-experimental factors which the researcher does not want to influence the effects, is crucial to drawing a valid conclusion. This is often done by controlling variables, if possible, or randomizing variables to minimize effects that can be traced back to third variables. Researchers only want to measure the effect of the independent variable(s) when conducting an experiment, allowing them to conclude that this was the reason for the effect.

Analysis and Conclusions.

In quantitative research, the amount of data measured can be enormous. Data not prepared to be analyzed is called "raw data". The raw data is often summarized as something called "output data", which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the output data is, for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a subject. The output data is used for statistical analysis, e.g. significance tests, to see if there really is an effect.

The aim of an analysis is to draw a conclusion, together with other observations. The researcher might generalize the results to a wider phenomenon, if there is no indication of confounding variables "polluting" the results.

If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable than the independent variable, further investigation is needed to gauge the validity of the results. An experiment is often conducted because the scientist wants to know if the independent variable is having any effect upon the dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there is causation.

Experiments are more often of quantitative nature than qualitative nature, although it happens.

 

Counselling to the studnt who have been pregnated in order to back at schoool

A teenager is a young person who age falls within the range from thirteen through nineteen (13-19) they are called teenager because their age number ends in teen. Also considered young adults that mark the change from childhood to adulthood (en Wikipedia.org/wiki/adolescence).

A teenager is a noun that refers to personal aged from 13-19 years of age. At this stage is when a boy or a girl faces the adolescence transition. The transition involves biological, psychological and social changes.

Teenager is a personal between the age 13-19 inclusive the one set of puberty and maturity not fully developed ( free dictionary.com/teenagers).

Teenager pregnancy is defined as pregnancy that occurs in women below the age of 20. It is common that at this age the girl has not complete her education and is completely dependent upon her parents thus an able to provide for the unborn child. Teenage pregnancies rate various from one country to another depending on factors such as access to contraceptive methods, sex education and sexuality activity.

Pregnancy counseling is a form of psychological counseling that provides information and support regarding pregnancy. This type of counseling assists the pregnant woman who is considering choices regarding the continuation of her pregnancy in. It the counselor impartially present the patient with her option that usually counselor should know local and national laws governing woman’s pregnancy choice, especially those concerning adolescent and their rights to make such decision.

A teacher will handle such teenager problem through making support on her decision in the counseling session. By doing so it will help the pregnant teenager to be satisfactory on her responsibility for her decision of being pregnant. Also through support making to the pregnant teenager it will make her to appreciate that the decision she has make is an appropriate choice. Because most of the pregnant teenager influenced by anxiety, high shame things may led to the drop out from the school. But through support making will make the teenager continuing at school.

.

Through creating positive supportive relationships with school staff in order to ensure effective schooling of pregnant student, I will promote the staff members to pay a positive relationship with such student who have pregnancy at school. Form this positive relationship with such student influence competence to her schooling effectively regardless to her state of having pregnancy. This implies every teacher around the specific school should be well encouraged to create positive relationship to pregnant student, for instance telling her on concentrating on academic matters while taking pregnancy issues be under normal circumstance of human life. This make the student who have pregnancy feel comfortable to her schooling effective out of afraid been hated by the staff members at school environment.

Through providing most important social work to her stay at school as the teacher who is responsible on counseling and creating comfortable learning environment to the learner who have pregnancy to ensure effective schooling. I have to give her some important social work to stay at school for instance giving manual wok like cleaning school environment and general cleanness the school environment, influencing her on participating social entertainment and academic social group like debates, morning speech and clubs as well as motivating her on observing football and netball for mind pleasure. This let the pregnant student feel comfortable been part and parcel of the school.

In order to council a students who have pregnancy I should clarify her choice and feelings. For example a pregnant students may feel idle unimportant in the society and may make harsh decision in her life. After recognizing her feeling is where now i can start to council her. Also the students may have so many choices due to the possession of pregnancy. For example the student may decide on continuing the pregnancy and rising the child herself, continuing the pregnancy and placing the child for adoption or terminating the pregnancy. Due to the identification of the choice and feelings of the students with a pregnancy is where now; I can show her the reality advantages and the consequence of her choice. If the choice will be convict-able it can agree with her option but if not I should neglect with the reasons that may make her to continue with studies.

It is determined that about 400,000 teens aged from 15-19 years give birth every years  in united state and the teens birth rate remains the highest in the developed world. In African countries it is approximately double (800,000) teens aged 14-19 are pregnancy every year as it is in Tanzania about 13-19 years are teenagers are pregnant and this occurs as because of life circumstance based on life difficulties from their families and improper guidance and counseling responsibility of parents to their youth, issue concerning reproductive and preventive measures from been a pregnant. This is rounded and bound of the cultural determinant of African families on addressing and spent time to talk with their children about sexual engagement in early teen ages and its impact, and hence mass drop out from schools, low academic achievement, feel loneliness and sometimes increase stigma and discrimination to the fellow students. The following are the possible ways which I will apply to handle the problem of pregnancy student so as to ensure her schooling effectively.

I will reduce anxiety to a student so that she can proceed schooling with pregnant. Because always the pregnant students feel guilt to proceed schooling while she has pregnancy. Due to such thing I will help the student through mental and emotional distress counseling as well as provision of practical advice regarding the pregnancy. Also I will work with a student to develop a plan of informing the parent about the pregnancy and what she could do about the pregnancy corresponding to asking parent to attend in the counseling session. This will help the parent to be aware with the problem although some parents might react with anger, and may be disappointed to attend in the counseling session after discovering her child have the pregnancy due to the frustration and shock.

I will provide supportive decision to a student that will bring changes on the negative attitude toward the pregnancy like negative attitude of aborting the fetus. Because always pregnant students tend to abort the fetus after conceiving due to the various reasons like fearing harassment from his/her parent or making abortion in order to proceed schooling. By doing so a student will change his own negative attitude toward aborting the fetus and molding the behavior of self esteem and self-confidence toward the pregnancy and seeing the pregnancy as a normal thing to her. This will led pregnant student to continue schooling.

I will increase reinforcement especially extrinsic rewards to the pregnant students by doing this I will promote her ability to come at school and listening the subject matter in the class effectively by influence this, she will be capable to knowing and increase sense of worth to what as been learn t since the students with pregnant lack enough time to think about education at all, and put much emphasize and concentrate about how she could handle that problem so my work here as teacher is to influence her towards performing well in the class by increasing rewarding behavior in every good responding.

I will increase motivation to her by ensuring that my student who have pregnant knows the reason of being at school by attributing towards her goals achievement in education, by give her more task and supervising with high consideration towards her performance, and return back feedback on time to measure her strength and weakness in performing academic task, so this will accelerate her capability towards effective learning through school faced with many symptoms in which school overlook about her in turn she will perform well oh her academic profile.

Non judgment altitude I must approach the situation of the student and not integrating a judgment, it involves being an open minded. I have to avoid to make decision for the student but I must direct a way for the student but I must direct a way for the student to judge herself about the situation she faced because student have her own view point’s concern of her situation. So I have to direct the student toward her decision she make in fill that the school environment is the suitable place and comfortable to live and study.

I will encourage the student that pregnancy is normal things in the life of human being and every woman will pass through. Therefore the encouragement will focus on making her caring the pregnancy up to the period of bearing and that all are the will of God, This will make her concentrate on studying and feel that their study is their best and child’s future.

I will impart knowledge and facts about various options and their implication basing on student counseling such as parenting knowledge by continue with pregnancy and then raise the child, adoption which denotes continue with the pregnancy and give the body to another family. From these knowledge of option and its implication promote to the teenager student effective schooling.

 its true that during the period of teenage the youth faced with many temptation towards sexual desire from these youth found in the school so this truly act as the challenge to both boys and girls since their cognitive and physiological understand of their body and self control not yet grow to ensure that they inter in sexual intercourse and effectively perform the academic task hence these students needs much support when they faced with pregnant and other social problem the teachers had to make sure that they show positive relationship and show great support towards their academic performance, but not dismiss them from the school compound by doing so the social evils, poverty, will increase at high peak.

REFERENCES

Mute E.M & Ndambuki P (2011). Guidance and Counseling published in Kenya by Oxford University Press East Africa Ltd.

Pontoon, L. (2006). Characteristics of effective counseling psycho-central Retrieved on April 30, 2014, Tahwis Published Ltd.

Wanpold B. E. (2001), The great psychotherapy debate Model, methods and finds, Mahwal, M. J Lawrence Er Ibrum Associates.