Planning
Planning
is a rational and systematic way of forecasting the future of an organization.
It
is a process of preparing for change by formulating future course of action.
According to Warren (1994), planning is a decision-making activity requiring the
process of ascertaining objectives and deciding on activities to attain these
objectives. Through planning process the manager aims at managing organization
efficiently and effectively.
·
Directing
·
Staffing
·
Organizing
·
Controlling
·
Directing
·
Planning
Characteristics
of planning functions
1)
Planning is anticipatory. Decisions are made on how and what to do before it is
done.
2)
It is goal directed.
3)
Planning focuses on desired future results
4)
Planning is future oriented. It involves making decisions that will be achieved
in future.
Steps
and stages in Planning
In
preparing a plan, managers use the following series of steps.
1)
Situational Analysis – This step involves analysis of past
events, currentSituation and attempts to forecast into future trends.
2)
Identification of Needs – Needs assessment is a process of
delineating“what is” and “what should be”. It further involves placing
priorities of the two activities.
3)
Derivation of goals and objectives – One derives goals and
objectives from the identified needs.
4)
Delineating of alternatives – As alternatives are
usually many, it is necessary to rank them so that those which need immediate
attention can be acted on.
5)
Choice of strategies and tactics. It is necessary to
select the most Convincing alternative while considering the other alternatives
that may not be a priority.
6)
Implementation – After approval of the plan, it is
split or handled as a whole to determine the activities that should be
undertaken
7)
Controlling and evaluation. Implementation of plans must be
continuously monitored. Planners must monitor the actual performance of various
work units according to unit goals and plans. This stage helps identify
deviation of actual performance from expected performance. Correction action
should be taken when there is a discrepancy.
Principles
of Planning
In
order to be effective and efficient, the following principles should be
followed.
These
principles are based on Gary Dressler’s work.
1)
Keep aims crystallized. The aims and objectives should be attainable, reasonable,
solid and clear.
2)
Develop accurate forecasts. Accurate data and events are crucial to any planning
process. Where possible,quantitative methods should be used apart from
intuitional judgment
3)
Involve subordinates in the planning process. This will help in ensuring ownership
and acceptance of the plans by implementers.
4)
The plan must be a sound one. An effective plan must be based on correct information
and proper assumptions.
5)
Do not be over-optimistic. It is important to be objective in planning. Being
over ambitious will not lead to an effective plan.
6)
Criteria for abandoning a project. The criteria for abandoning a project should
be established at the beginning.
7)
Keep the Plans Flexible. The progress of the plan should be under constant
review so that it can be revised if and when the situation requires modification.
8)
Review long-range plans on a short-term basis. Long-range plans need to be
reviewed regularly. This will ensure that changes that occur overtime during
implementation are incorporated in the plan.
9)
Fits the plan to the environment. Where environment is comparatively stable, a
plan can be rigidly adhered to. In case the environment is volatile, the plan
must be highly flexible to accommodate necessary changes occasioned by changes
in environment.
Importance
of the planning
Planning
is a very important function of management. It helps in goal setting. The goals
define desired outcomes for an organization which can be used as performance criteria.
The output of an organization can be well assessed if there is intended output
at the beginning. For example if at the beginning of the year it is set that in
a school about 40% of students must achieve grade A in examination at the end
of the year, this can be assessed to find out if the goals were achieved after
results are released. Through plans, managers can learn what the organization
intends to achieve. They can make decisions to ensure that internal policies,
roles, performance, structure, product and expenditure will be in accordance with
desired outcomes.
Adesina
(1990) defines planning as a way of projecting our intentions that is a method
of deciding what we want to accomplish, Ejiogu (1990) holds that to plan, means
to project, forecast, design, or make or chart our course. From these views, it
can be summarized that planning refers to the act of deciding in advance what
is to be done, how and when to do it, where and who is to do it in order to
achieve the goals or objectives of the system. For example, when arrangement
are made as to how many students are to be in a class.
Decision
making is an essential part of planning. Decision making and problem solving
are used in all management functions, although usually they are considered a part
of the planning phase. The presents information on decision making and how it
relates to the first management function of planning. A discussion of the
origins of management science leads into one on modeling, the five – step
process of management science, and the process of engineering problem solving.
Different
types of decisions are examined. They are classified under conditions of
certainty, using linear programming; risk, using expected value and decision
trees; or uncertainty, depending on the degree with which the future
environment determining outcomes of these decisions is known. They continues
with brief discussions of integrated databases, management information and
decision support systems, and expert systems and closes with a comment on the
need for effective implementation of decisions.
In
decision making process a manager identifies a specific situation and fends the
threats and opportunities that it offers.
In
planning manager final these alternatives by testing and measuring their effectiveness.
They identify the pros and cans of each alternative.
Planning
can be defined as the process of selecting future course of action while
decision.
Defined
as the process of selecting a cause of action from the alternatives, they need
to be accurate for the welfare of the organization.
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Management functions
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Planning
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Decision making
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Organizing
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Leading
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Controlling
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Education
management is both a field of academic study and a collective group of
professionals that includes principals, teachers and other education
professionals learn about education, job outlook.
Education
management also same times knows educational administration, is commonly
associated with elementary and secondary schools as well as institutes of
higher learning like colleges and universities.
Educational
management professionals can also be found working on governmental agencies,
private companies, and not for profit organizations
Educational
management, is the theory and practice of the organization and administration
of existing educational establishments and systems is education management.
Both
planning and management in education.
Training
and producing teachers capable of managing school collage and other education
project and programme.
The
programme provides opportunity students to develop and demonstrate knowledge
and understanding, skills, qualities and other attribute in the education
services.
Have
develop positive understanding and accumulate knowledge in approach to teaching
various subject.
Have
strong understand of education policy planning, administration and management.
Be
able to understanding of education planning in cultural context. Economic and
national perspectives.
Have
develop knowledge and understanding of research and evaluation in diverse area
of education planning, policy, management and administration.
Have
developed knowledge and understanding on how to manage resource in education
institution.
Have
developed knowledge and understand on how to plan implement and evaluate
projects as well as ration in entrepreneurship in education sector.
Planning
managerial functions where managers are required to establish goals and state
the way and means by which these goals one to be attained. These the planning
is taken as the foundation for future activities. Or
Planning
is deciding advance what as to be done. Planning is the thinking before doing.
Planning
also required thinking about past events and about future opportunities and
process finds the organizational strengths and weaknesses.
Decision
making is the process of idea to trying a set of feasible alternatives and
choosing a course of action from them.
Decision
making is a part in planning decision making is an intermediate sized set of
activities which begins with identifying problems and sends with choice making
of decision given.
Currently Educational, Planning,
Management and Administration courses are offered under the programme stream of education policy and management. in
Policy and Management programme is designed for mature individuals who have a
combination of at least five years education and related
vocational/occupational work experience.
The Policy and Management in degree
Programme is intended to produce effective professionals in the area of
educational planning, policy, management and administration. Damian (2003)
maintains that an ineffective school leadership is the main factor that
contributes to differences in proper schools’ functioning. World Bank (1994)
observed that in some Tanzanian schools (especially in public schools)
resources are poorly managed and sometimes under-utilised.
Thus there is a need to establish a programme
specializing on educational policy, planning and management at undergraduate
level. This specialization will prepare professionals for management and
leadership positions in governmental, NGO, and other private sector
organizations that specialize in educational programs and projects. It is also
aimed to produce teachers who will teach educational planning, management and
administration in teachers colleges, NGOs and other educational institutions.
Furthermore it will provide opportunity
for participants to acquire knowledge, skills and techniques used to manage
both human and non-human resources in governmental, NGO, and other private
sector organizations that specialize in educational programs and projects. It
will enable learners to design, manage, regulate, monitor, or evaluate primary
and secondary educational programs and schools and manage the inputs necessary
for improving the quality of educational programs. Students in this programme
have to study all core courses listed under each year.
This means, graduates in this programme
will specialize in one teaching subject from the Faculty of Arts and Social
Science, or the Faculty of Business Management, or the Faculty of Science,
Technology and Environmental studies.
All Policy and Management students shall
need to take a minimum of 14 units of their teaching subjects in their
respective faculties.
This is a proposal to develop Policy and
management programme within the Faculty of Education at the Open University of
Tanzania (OUT).
Courses of the programme will be taught
by experienced lecturers with general education knowledge and specializations
in educational policy, planning, management, economics and administration. They
are either employed by the OUT on full or part-time basis whose are
Attached with this document. The details
of the programme are hereunder elaborated.
The rationale of the programme is to prepare professionals for
management and leadership positions in governmental, NGOs, and other private
sector organizations that specialize in educational programs and those who will
specialize in teaching in teachers colleges. Typically, incoming students must
have some work experience in the area of human services such as teaching,
education administration, social work, health care, job training, or community
development .Prior to enrolment students must possess certificates and diplomas
and must have served in the system for a period of not less than two years.
The programme provides theoretical,
philosophical, historical and practical learning experiences. key characteristic of a student completing
the programme will be knowledge and professional abilities in management and
leadership positions in governmental, NGOs, and other private sector organizations
that specialize in educational programs and those who will specialize in
teaching in teachers colleges. The distinguishing features of this programme
are, first, Capacity building in the educational planning and institutional
management. Second, training and producing teachers capable of managing
schools, colleges and other educational projects and programmes.
The programme aims at applicants holding
certificates and Diplomas in the area of human services such as teaching,
education administration, social work, health care, job training, or community
development. The entry requirements are as follows: O-level with at
least five passes or three credits plus a certificate in educational management
or a certificate in educational management related fields plus the foundation
course certificate of the OUT or a qualifying test run by recognized.
University OR Diploma in management of
education. Prior to enrolment students must have served in the system for a
period of not less than two years.
The programme aims at exposing students
to knowledge and skills in pedagogy of various subjects.
The programme is planned to provide
basic knowledge of management and administration of educational organizations
to help teachers understand what is entailed in school administration, and
those who might be involved in school administration have a grasp of what is
expected of them as school administrators.
The programme provides opportunities for
students to develop and demonstrate knowledge and understanding, skills, qualities
and other attributes in the following areas:
On completing the programme students can
be expected to:
Have developed positive understanding
and accumulated knowledge in the methods, and approaches to teaching various
subjects.
Have a strong understanding of
educational policy, planning, administration and management be able to
demonstrate understanding of educational planning in cultural context, economic
and national perspectives;
Have developed knowledge and
understanding of research and evaluation in diverse areas of educational
planning, policy, management and administration.
Have developed knowledge and
understanding on how to manage both human and non-human resources in education
institutions
Have developed knowledge and
understanding on how to plan, implement and evaluate projects
as well as rationale for
entrepreneurship in education sector.
On completing the programme students can
be expected to have the ability to:
Identify and apply appropriate teaching/
learning methods for student teachers Show basic knowledge in management and
Administration of schools and other
Education institutions. identify and
apply appropriate identification, screening, assessment and early intervention
methods and strategies in educational planning and implementation identify and
apply appropriate research and evaluation methods in leadership and management
of education institutions identify and apply principles and skills for managing
human and no-human resources in educational organizations.
Analyze and design projects in education
institutions On completing the programme students can be expected to have the
ability to:
Use a range of didactic methods in
teaching and supervising student teachers effectively and efficiently use of
leadership and administrative skills in managing schools and other education
institutions.
Effectively use of research and
evaluation skills in leadership and management of education institutions write and plan services and
lessons for student teachers in colleges and other educational programmes
design and implement viable projects in education institutions or programmes
On completing the programme students can
be expected to have the ability to:
Teach student teachers in colleges and
other stakeholders in the education sector; plan, carry out, and report on an
individual research project; carry out managerial tasks in schools, colleges
and educational programmes; find information and use information technology
The programme is divided into three
parts namely: level one- Foundations courses (10 units), Level two – Teaching
subjects, methodology and Practice including leadership and management (6
Units), Level three- Policy and
Administration subjects chosen by the student (12 Units). In that for a student
to be awarded a professional Policy and Management of The Open University of
Tanzania has to complete a total of 36 Units.
The contents in this degree programme
are divided into three parts as shown in the diagram above. The programme also
has three interconnecting types of courses. These are policy, planning and
management courses, general education courses and the teaching subject courses.
The first two with the exception of the methodology are pre-determined. The
last one is a selection of the student. Specialization
In
this programme students are supported through: provision of study materials,
face-to-face
sessions
with self assessment portfolios, marking of assignments and tests, teaching
practice
supervision, consultations, and guidance
and counseling.
Written
assignment, supervised tests, home assignments, and group work and written
supervised
examinations.
Mechanisms for gaining student feedback
on the quality of teaching and their learning experience include: Students
evaluation forms of the lecturers and the programme, students course work
activities (Assignments, group works, and tests) and minutes of students
government meetings.
Staff development priorities include:
Seminars, workshops, conferences and meeting both local and international,
research, publications and registration on higher level academic programmes.
There are clear criteria for the marking
and grading of assessments based on the generic criteria of the OUT as
indicated in the OUT Prospectus. The scheduling and amount of assessment are
consistent with an effective and appropriate measurement of the achievement by
students of the intended learning outcomes and those they effectively support
learning. The criteria of the assessment enable internal and external examiners
to distinguish the different categories of achievement. In developing
competence in learners, a variety of assessment methods are used to allow peer
assessment and teaching, student self assessment portfolios. Feedback to
students is managed through sending back the marked assignments and tests are
sent back to students for self correction and guidance in reading. Skills are
assessed through the teaching practice, projects assignments, student self
assessment through portfolios. The assessment workload realistic for both
students and staff. The programme complies with the OUT current assessment and
progression regulations.
Standard entry qualifications, qualified
teaching staff, standard assessment criteria and formats, standard evaluation
mechanisms, standard monitoring and follow up system, good progression and
completion rates, and approved curriculum.
Upon
completion of this programme, students are expected to be able to teach
educational planning and management in colleges. Also they are expected to be
efficient and effective in managing schools, education programmes and other
education institutions.
The course gives a short history of
psychology and educational psychology and explains the major theories of
learning and development, with an emphasis on applications of the theories in
teaching.
Other topics include individual and
group differences, instructional systems, motivation, teacher behaviour,
classroom management, learning assessment and other applications of psychology
to education. The course will be delivered through lecture modules and students’
activities.
Planning
Planning
is a rational and systematic way of forecasting the future of an organization.
It
is a process of preparing for change by formulating future course of action.
According to Warren (1994), planning is a decision-making activity requiring
the process of ascertaining objectives and deciding on activities to attain these
objectives. Through planning process the manager aims at managing organization
efficiently and effectively.
·
Directing
·
Staffing
·
Organizing
·
Controlling
·
Directing
·
Planning
Characteristics
of planning functions
1)
Planning is anticipatory. Decisions are made on how and what to do before it is
done.
2)
It is goal directed.
3)
Planning focuses on desired future results
4)
Planning is future oriented. It involves making decisions that will be achieved
in future.
Steps
and stages in Planning
In
preparing a plan, managers use the following series of steps.
1)
Situational Analysis – This step involves analysis of past
events, currentSituation and attempts to forecast into future trends.
2)
Identification of Needs – Needs assessment is a process of
delineating“what is” and “what should be”. It further involves placing
priorities of the two activities.
3)
Derivation of goals and objectives – One derives goals and
objectives from the identified needs.
4)
Delineating of alternatives – As alternatives are
usually many, it is necessary to rank them so that those which need immediate
attention can be acted on.
5)
Choice of strategies and tactics. It is necessary to
select the most Convincing alternative while considering the other alternatives
that may not be a priority.
6)
Implementation – After approval of the plan, it is
split or handled as a whole to determine the activities that should be undertaken
7)
Controlling and evaluation. Implementation of plans must be
continuously monitored. Planners must monitor the actual performance of various
work units according to unit goals and plans. This stage helps identify
deviation of actual performance from expected performance. Correction action
should be taken when there is a discrepancy.
REFERENCES
Baron,
R.; Byrne, D. & Branscombe, N. (2006) Social Psychology (11th Ed)
Elliot,
S.; Kratochwill, T.; Cook, J & Travers, J. (2000) Educational Psychology:
Effective
Santrock,
John W. (2004) Educational Psychology 2nd Ed. Chapter Eight. Teaching,
Effective Learning. Chapter Nine, Eleven.
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