WHAT IS GRAMMAR? LECTURE NOTES

What is grammar?

Are rules governing a certain language so every language has its own grammar? It is a knowledge that enables a person to know whether a certain unit is wrong or right. For example

a)  Tomorrow you will went to school (X)

b) Tomorrow you will go to school (V)

PARTS OF SPEECH/WORD CLASSES

Words are classified in different groups/classes as follows;

NOUNS, refers to the names of things, places, animals, ideas, etc.

Types of Noun

i)        Proper nouns, such as; Mbeya, John.

Characteristics of proper nouns

a)  It should be written started with capital letters. I.e. they are capitalized at the initial.

b) They are in singular form most of the time although sometimes can appear as John’s.

ii)      Common nouns, for example; girl, school, town.

Characteristics of common nouns

a)  They form their plurals easily. For example; girl-girls, book-books.

b) They are easily used with articles. For example; a girl, the girls.

c)  Are in general while proper nouns are always specific.

d) They are written in small letters except when written placed at the beginning of the sentence.

iii)    Abstract nouns, are nouns that cannot be seen or touched, they are intangible. For example God, feelings, believes. It includes

-   ‘’ness’’ form nouns such as; Goodness, happiness, madness.

-   ‘’Ment’’ for example; excitement, government, development, appointment.

-   ‘’hood’’ for example; childhood, brotherhood, adulthood, manhood.

-   ‘’nce’’ for example; governance, independence, obedience.

-   ‘’CY’’ for example; democracy, hypocrisy.

-   ‘’ism’’ for example; colonialism, feudalism, nationalism.

-   ‘’er’’ for example; player, worker, singer.

-   ‘’ship’’ for example; relationship, leadership.

-   ‘’ion’’ for example; nation, correction.

VERBS

A word that shows actions, for example; go, run.

Characteristics of verbs

-   Can show tenses.

-   Can show person. For example; ‘’john comes here often’’

-   Can show numbers.

ADJECTIVES,

These are words which tell more about nouns or pronouns. For example; short, clever, beautiful, attractive, joyous, and careless.

Characteristic of adjectives

-   They can show levels, for example;

a)  John is tall.

b) Remy is taller than john.

c)  Joseph is the tallest of all.

ADVERBS are words that tell more about the verbs, adjectives or an adverb itself. For example;

-   Very beautiful.

Also ‘’ly’’ forms some adverbs, for example; carefully, quickly.

PRONOUNS are words used instead of nouns. For example the words; ‘’she, he, it, they’’

Characteristic of pronouns

-   They show persons.

CONJUNCTIONS are words that join pairs of two sentences and becomes single sentences. For example;

-   Juma and Hassan are fighting.

PREPOSITIONS may be more than one word. For example; ‘’inside, outside, according to’’

INTERJECTIONS are words expressing or shows feelings and are accompanied with the exclamation mark. For example;

-   Ooohh! She has died!

-   Aaaaaagh!

VERBS

Express action or state of being. There are helping verbs, main verbs, and linking verbs.

·        Main verb have one or more helping make up verb phrases. For example;

-   Danny has played football.

-   Danny should have been working.

·        Helping verb is common in form of; is, are, was, were, am, be, having, and do.

There are also models like can, may, could, would, shall, will etc.

Modal auxiliary work is the helping verb that is joined with the main verb to express an attribute such as necessity or possibility. For example;

-   We must win the game. (necessity)

-   If we work hard we may win. (possibility)

Question

Use auxiliary modals to show necessity/ possibility in 5 sentences.

Helping verb may separate from the main verbs. For example;

-   Have you seen tom? (question form)

-   You should not miss it.

Actions verbs

There are 2 classes/types namely;

i)        Physical

ii)      Mental.

Physical, for example; speak, carry, paly, sleep.

They are open, they can be watched.

Mental, for example; think, known, dream.

They are closed, cannot be seen/watched. They abstract or;

-   Transitive.

-   Intransitive.

Transitive answers the questions to whom/what.

They carry objects (may be nouns). For example;

-   She bought an orange.

-   She carries a bucket.

-   Asha beat marry.

Intransitive don’t carry object. For example;

-   They are playing.

-   Maryam wrote me a letter. (me- indirect object) (letter- direct object)

-   For example ‘’Damas fall down’’ (no object.

-   She cries.

Linking verb connects the subject to a word or group of the identities. OR

They describe the subject. For example;

-   He is shy.

-   The students are learning. (these sentences describing the subject)

-   I am sick.

Linking verb are adjectives most of the time. They occur in SVC. For example;

-   Wowoka is an influential prophet.

They includes I, where.

Common linking verbs am, is, was, were. For example;

-   You have become lazy.

-   He feels happy.

-   It tastes good.

ADVERBS are words that modify a verb/tell more about a verb, adjectives or another adverb. It tells where, when, how often, how long, to what extent. For example;

-   He read the contract thoroughly. (to what extent)

-   He works slowly.

-   Lilian is very slow.

PREPOSITIONS always show the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. For example;

-   The line starts behind him.

-   Did you see Julie at the last game?

They include; to, from, under, around, in.

INTERJECTIONS they express emotions. They have no grammatical relations with the rest of sentence. A word is followed by an exclamation mark (!). For example;

Ooh! Ghosh! Woow! Aaagh!

They show angry, happiness, amazing.

CONJUNCTIONS they join words or group of words. They are of 3 types namely;

i)        Coordinating conjunctions.

ii)      Correlative conjunctions.

iii)    Surbodinative conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join words/group used in the same way. For example;

And, but, for, nor, or, so, yet.

-   Along time ago barbers invaded and conquered Spain.

-   We missed the opening scene but we enjoyed the rest of the play. (The two clauses are independent clauses joined by but).

-   Correlative conjunctions they are pairs of conjunctions. They join words or group of words. For example;

-   Both, and, either or, neither nor, not only but also.

-   Both Nigeria and Ghana are African countries.

Surbodinative conjunctions they are clauses of different status.

-   Independent clauses.

-   Dependent clauses/subordinative clauses. They connect subordinative clauses to independent clauses. For example;

-   After, because, since, unless, when, as, if, while. For example;

-   I was astonished when I saw the headlines.

-   When I saw the headlines I gasp.

Subodinative conjunctions may come at the beginning of the sentence or at the middle (when).

Question

Discuss about any word category in a group and present.

There is no one way of defining a sentence, among the definitions is;

i)        A sentence is a unit in the language which expresses a complete thought.

ii)      A sentence is the largest structural unit in the language.

iii)    A sentence is a word group that contains a subject and a verb that express a complete thought.

A complete thought means a sentence should be meaningful/ should make sense by itself without leaving any doubt question. For example;

-   Look (sentence)

The subject is you not overt. Cannot be seen it is omitted.

FEATURES OF SENTENCES

i)        It is constructed according to a system of rules which are well known by all adult mother tongue speakers of the language. The sentences formed in this way is said to be grammatically correct. For example;

-   Jane is going to school. (V)

-   Going Jane to school. (X)

ii)      It is a construction which can be used without people feeling that, it is incomplete. For example;

-   Yesterday when I was going to school. (not a sentence because people will feel it is complete).

iii)    Hierarchically, it is the highest construction to which the rules of grammar applied. i.e. sentence is in the highest position.

Word- phrase- clause- sentence. For example;

-The test was postponed and the students were happy.

‘’the- word’’ ‘’ the test- phrase’’ the test was postponed- the 1^st clause’’ the students were happy- the 2^nd clause’’

Thus a word makes phrases, phrases makes clause, clause makes sentences, yet the sentences can be composed by one word. For example;

-   Look, come, go, taxi.

Sentences are not in one form, there are different types of sentences. They can be classified into 3 ways (dimensions of classifying sentences)

1.  A) Declarative sentences.

B) Interrogative sentences.

C) Imperative sentences.

D)Exclamative sentences

2.  A) Full sentences.

B) Ellipted sentences.

C) Non sentences.

3. A) Simple sentences/ basic sentences.

   B) Non simple sentences.

- Compound sentences.

- Complex sentences.

- Compound complex sentences.

I) Declarative sentences. Are the sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the verb (the verb follows the subject). For example;

* Jack (S) gave (V) rose a digital camera for her birthday.

* George (S) goes (V) to school every day.

ii) Interrogative sentences are the sentences which are formally marked in two ways. These are;

a)   Yes/No interrogative. Here the operator is placed in front of the subject. For example;

-   Did (operator) Jack (S) give Rose a digital camera?

-   Do (operator) you (S) smoke?

b) Wh-interrogative. Wh element is positioned initially. For example;

-   What did Jack give Rose for her birthday?

iii) Imperative sentences are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject and their verb have the base form. (The verb is in a base form. i.e. verbs do not have any addition like; Ed, ing, etc. for example;

-   Do (V) you assignment. (You is the subject covert)

-   Call (V) your mother. (You, hidden-2^nd person either, subject).

iv)      Exclamative sentences are the sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how usually with a subject verb order. For example;

- What a fine camera she received for her birthday!!

Normally an exclamation mark identifies them at the end of the sentence.

-   It is exceptional form.

-   It is a Yes/No question.

-   It is identical in form to a statement expect for the final rising intonation/question mark, for example ‘’they have spoken to the ambassador?’’

-   ‘’you realize what the risk are’’.

-   Exclamatives

-   Hasn’t she grown!

-   Wasn’t it a marvelous concert!

FUNCTIONS OF DECLARATIVE SENTENCES

DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS

·        To function or to work as statements. When they are working as statements, they are primarily or basically they are used to convey (give information on a specific point). For example;

-   I am going to the market. (information)

-   The students are working hard.

·        Interrogative sentences functions as questions. When statements provide information, questions are primarily basically they are used to seek for ask for information on a specific point. For example;

-   What’s happening? (seek for information)

-   Will you go to mosque tomorrow? (information)

·        In imperatives, its discourse function is they work as directives and primarily/basically they are used to instruct someone to do something. For example;

-   Please keep quiet.

·        Exclamatives also used as exclamations and primarily basically used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something.

N: B. Direct association between syntactic class and semantic is available but the two classes do not always match. I.e. sometimes there is a mismatch. For example;

-   Jack gave Rose a digital camera?

This is a declarative question. It is syntactically declarative but semantically a question.

-   What do I care? The rhetorical question in this is syntactically an interrogative but semantically a statement, i.e. ‘’I certain don’t care’’.

-   I’d love a cup of tea. This is declarative but semantically a directive suggesting the hearer bring the speaker a cup of tea.

-   Isn’t Irene clever? It is syntactically interrogative but semantically an exclamation.

·        The 2^nd category of sentences.

a)  Full sentences, are the sentences which contain all elements of grammar. For example;

-   Physics is a science subject.

-   If you work hard you will perform well.

-   I run fast although I didn’t win the race.

b) Ellipted sentences are sentences in which some elements are missing, they are left out but whatever is left out is recoverable. In the conversation and written dialogue, it is common to find ellipsis in sentences that respond on question of previous sentences spoken by another speaker.

·        Characteristics of ellipsis.

-   Are interpreted from preceding sentence.

-   It avoids repetitions so as to focus on the new materials.

-   They appear in small parts and not complete. For example;

A: is your daughter at home?

B: Probably. (She is at home)

A: who sent you?

B: The manager. (The manager sent me)

·        In a form of declarative sentence.

A: I am leaving.

B: Why? (Why are you leaving?)

A: I can’t play football.

B: Why? (Why can’t you play football?) if you don’t know the reason.

B: I know (I know, you can’t play football) if you know the reason, the reason (disabled).

A: Nobody is here.

B: Obvious. (Obvious nobody is here)

A: When will you leave?

B: With lucky, on Tuesday. (With luck I’ll leave on Tuesday).

Ellipsis may be more strictly described as grammatically emission in contrast or as opposed to other kinds of emission in language.

·        Other emission which are not ellipsis.

a)  Phonological loss which is known as ‘’aphaeresis’’ is the loss of a syllable as in because ‘’cos’’.

b) In word formation the clipping of words such as ‘’flu’’ from influenza.

c)  Semantic emission as in ‘’frankly he is stupid’’. In grammatical emission the omitted items must be recoverable. For example;

a)  She can’t sing tonight, so she won’t.

Examples like this contain an ellipsis that presupposes words like this contain an ellipsis that presupposes words like in a previous part of the same sentences. It is clear that, in the example above it is the word. ‘’sing’’ that has been ellipted.

A: You ought to speak to Jim about his laziness.

B: If he works hard I won’t have to.

-   The suspect admits to steal a car from the garage but he can’t remember which.

c) Non sentences are sentences which are not grammatical but they may be perfectly normal sentences although they may not be analyzed grammatically. They can be meaningful also. They include such common expressions like ‘’Hello!!’’ (Cannot be analyzed but it is meaningful and build a kind of relationship). Can be replied Yes, No, So long)

A: Cheers.

B: Thanks

-   Non sentences are meaningful but cannot be analyzed grammatically.

These are found more in headlines, headings, tittles, labels.

For example;

-   Traffic chaos. (newspaper)

-   The captain and kings (tittles)

-   Naming of parts (tittles of the poem)

-   Pure lemon juice.

-   No smoking.

The above are all non-sentences since they can’t be analyzed grammatically. If trying to analyses them, they are only subjects.

They occur frequently in speech mostly in informal conversation.

i)        Exclamatory noun phrase modifies by relative clauses in most cases with the zero relative.

Generally, they express disapproval. For example;

-   The clothes they wear! (zero relative)

-   The way they complained!

-   The fuss they made!

ii)      Expressing scornful disapproval is exclamatory. Phrases consisting of a noun phrase with a matching possessive pronoun. For example;

-   You and your statistics! (i.e. not able to study statistics)

-   Jim and his gossip!

-   John and his childish hobbies!

iii)    Exclamatory prepositional phrases beginning with ‘’of all’’ expressing disapproval. For example;

-   Of all people, you!

-   Of all stupid things to say!

iv)      Exclamative noun adjective phrases may express approval or disapproval.

-   Stupid!

-   Big baby!

-   Excellent meal!

-   Good idea!

-   Dirty place!

-   Very interesting!

-   Poor thing!

N:B. Articles are often omitted. If the phrase is directed to the person addressed it may be preceded by ‘’you’’ for example;

-   You angel!

-   You poor thing!

-   You idiot!

·        To express a more familiar and more affectionate relationship. ‘’my’’ is used. For example;

-   My poor baby!

-   My silly boy!

v)        Noun phrase may have the force comments, request, where appropriate adverbials such as ‘’please’’ may accompany the noun phrase. For example;

-   Attention! Tax! Your turn! Patience! Lights! Phone! The door! Another request! If you don’t mind! The letter please! Next slide please!

SIMPLE SENTENCES

It consists only one subject, one predicate and also it consist of one main clause. For example;

-   Telling lies is a sin.

-   Many went to the market.

-   We are studying English.

COMPOUND SENTENCES

They consist of two independent/main clauses and the clauses are joined by coordinating conjunctions. The clauses have equal status. For example;

-   The moon shine and everything looked fresh.

-   It rained all morning but it cleared up for the picnic.

-   Either you play to win or you don’t play at all.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

They consist of one independent clauses/main clause and one dependent clause being joined by subordinating conjunctions. (The clauses are unequal in status) the dependent clauses waits to be completed by the independent clauses. For example;

-   As far as I could determine mbeya has not changed at all.

-   If it rains I will be happy.

-   You won’t pass unless you work hard.

One can classify sentences into various groups depending on his/her knowledge about them.

Question

Discuss with examples one type of word of your choice.