BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amin,
S. (1974). Accumulation on a World scale.
New York: Monthly Review Press.
Bennet, N.R & Gobel, R. (1967). Re constructing African.New York: Boston
University Press.
Buxton, F. (1940). The African Slave trade and its Remedy.
London: John Murray.
Clark, J.D. (1970). The Pre-History of Africa. London:
Thames and Hudson.
Crowder, M. (1971). West African Resistance. New York:
African Publication Trust.
Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es
Salaam: Tanzania Publishing
House.
Webster, T.B & Boahen,
A. (1968). A History of West Africa:
The Revoluntary Years of West
Africa since
1800. London: Longman.
Williams, E. (1964). Capitalism and Slavery. London: Andre
Deutsch.
Mercantilism
is the first stage of capitalism that was introduced by the European capitalist
nations that largely based on primitive accumulation of capital like unequal
exchange, plundering, looting and piracy[1]. Periodised
during the 15th century to 18th century and largely based
on oversea trade and commerce where by every European country attracted herself
as more as possible like gold, silver, and diamond which resulted into national
rivalry among the European nations and protectionism of their economic
interest. The characteristics of this mercantilism were protectionism,
expansionism, bullionism, colonialism, national unification and militarism.
Colonialism
refers to the direct subordination of one country by another country
politically, socially, and economically with the aim of exploiting her
resources[2].
From about mn1880 European attitude to colonize in Africa changed remarkably
and as a result within a space of 20 years nearly the whole of Africa continent
was under European rule. To large extent the scramble in Africa initially it
was a straight fight between the French and British. Denmark and Holland had withdrawn
from Africa in the period of when colonial possession were not very much in favor
with European nations in Africa, therefore showed little interest in the
expansion there. Portugal she was confined to the small enclave in Portuguese
guinea. It was only the intervention of German that made the colonization of
Africa was very legible. By 1884 after consolidating her unification German
quickly seized not only Togoland but also Cameroon and Tanganyika.
Neo-colonialism
refers to the indirect control of the African nation by their former colonial masters
socially, politically and eco0nomically[3].
This came about following the attainment of flag independence from the colonial
masters. The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that their economic
interest would not be jeopardized by the transfer of power. One method was to
prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by involving leaders of
national movement into colonial government. This ensured that emerging leaders
were groomed to up hold the existing exploitative relations. Secondly the
process of handing over power ensured that neo-colonial relation would follow
independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former colonial
masters, the construction was made and approved by the colonialist; they made
sure that the western model of political authority was followed in the independent
country. The strategic sectors were
preserved to the colonial masters like finance and international relation. In
fact even in those fields that third world countries were given responsibility
the colonial did not vacant. This neo-colonialism rooted from the conditions
created by mercantilism and colonialism for the operations in the third world
countries in forms of political, economic, ideological and military methods.
The following are the conditions created by the mercantilism and colonialism for
the operations of Neo- colonialism in the third world countries in Africa and
other Asia countries;
Mercantilism
created un equal exchange where it characterized by oversea trade which based
largely on unequal exchange for instance they took valuable things like gold,
diamond, ivory, slaves, timbers, fur from the third world countries and brought valueless items like mirrors,
spices, beads, guns and umbrellas among others[4].
This situation led the third world countries to become poor from that time of
mercantilism to date. The events caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in the
third world countries in the form of aids, loans, importation of experts from
western countries with very high interest rate and realistic conditions this
proves hard for African nations to pay back that result into debt burden which
is the operations of neo-colonialism nowadays.
National
rivalry or militarism during the mercantilism every European nation wanted to
dominate trade and lead others this resulted into stiff competition that led
even to military confrontation among various nations for example in 1453 Britain
fought the French cities were looted in 1650 the Dutch with the British were
at logger head over the cape in
south Africa[5].
The stiff competition among the European countries competing for market, area
of investment and cheap labour for their industries led to the colonization in Africa,
Asia and Latin America for example the Dutch at the cape of South Africa in
1652 the Portuguese in the Caribbean Island in 1490s. The colonized countries
were exploited too much through destruction, preservation and creation of
political, economic, social and cultural issues which were done by
colonialists. These events caused the
emergence of neo-colonialism in post colonial independent in Africa and other
parts in third world countries in the form of aid, loans from Western countries
as a way of compensating the effects of mercantilism and colonialism.
Mercantilism
created technological stagnation in the third world countries for instance the African
cottage industries where by the skilled craft men and artisans were taken as
slaves. And also finished European goods flooded the Africans market[6].
Africans were unable to compete with European goods and
on top of that African had no enough time to continue developing their cottage
industries like iron smelting, portly, gold mining due to slave raids. The
situations caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in the form of aids, loans, sending
of European expatriates to work in the third world countries for interest of
their countries and then are given higher standard of living than the local
people like high wages expensive accommodation, luxurious cars, which makes all
the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner expatriates.
Deculturalization
of the third world countries during the mercantilism, for instance in Africa it
led to the destruction of African culture and adoption of European culture
African abandoned to practice their culture like traditional ceremonies,
wrestling, hunting and others because of constant slave raids little time was
left for there to engage in such activities those who were taken as slaves were
not allowed to practice their culture instead foreign culture was adopted[7]. During
the colonial the influence of films,
books and education syllabus where by the curriculum is developed by the agents
of colonialists, the provision of scholarship to Africans to study abroad in
their countries, brain washing Africans through ideological indoctrination nowadays are rooted from the
effects of mercantilism and colonialism which operates as Neo-colonialism.
Rise
of monopoly companies in Europe where by small companies were swallowed by the
big companies so as to monopolize raw materials and market in third world
countries[8].
These monopoly companies exploited raw materials and market the situation which
led the third world countries to become poorer. This situation created the
operations of neo-colonialism in the third world countries as the third world
countries they depend much in the form of aid, loans, importation of Europeans
countries nowadays because they are poor due to the effects of monopoly
companies during the colonial period where now day third world country remain
as damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so that remain
de-industrialized and depend on them for consumer goods.
The
decline and disruption of third world countries trade for instance in African
trade for instance in African trade especially long distance trade and trans
Saharan trade which had flourished before the triangular slave trade some
cities that had developed due to such trade like Timbuktu, Jenne and Goa also
cities like Kilwa , Bagamoyo began to disappear due to the fall of trans
Saharan trade. The decline of these cities created the emergence of
neo-colonialism because they depend on western countries in order to recover
their initial occurred development[9].
Now days they depend politically, socially, culturally, ideologically, and
militarily in order to develop that is why
the neo- colonialism operations occurs in these third world countries
especially in African countries.
Mercantilism
created economic stagnation of the third world countries for instance the
underdevelopment of Africa was caused by triangular slave trade many energetic
younger men and women were shipped into slavery leaving back the aged and
children who were economically non productive thus the economic stagnation of
the continent, also led to the decline of agriculture because of lack of human
labour[10].
Due to constant slave raids the survival of the horrible trade could not settle
peacefully to engage in agriculture because of panic and fear this culminated
into severe famine in many parts of the third world countries especially Western and central Africa. These
situations led the third world countries for the sake of their development that
is why they get aid and loans from developed countries, hence the operations of
neo-colonialism in third world countries especially African countries.
Mercantilism
created hunger, famine and diseases in the third world countries which led to
the outbreak of epidemics such as small pox, malaria and many others, due to
insecurity and lack of enough man power, agriculture was abandoned where famine
and hunger became a common place that claimed a number of African lives the
worse affected areas where those of west and central Africa where many chiefdoms
disappeared gradually[11].
This condition created led the operations of neo-colonialism in the third world
countries as we see now days they depend much in the western countries for both
political, cultural, social, military and ideology also economic aid in order
to cover the gaps created by hunger, famine, and diseases during the mercantile
period.
Colonialism
created the abolition of slave and slavery in third world countries and slavery
especially in Africa and establishes the so called legitimate trade[12].
Slave trade had been abolished long time 1830s, but still some European nations
were still reluctant at implement resolution. The Berlin conference also aimed
at emphasizing the abolition of slave trade in Africa. And in place monopoly
European companies were to be introduced to carry on the so called legitimate
trade where European goods would be traded freely[13].
The legitimate trade led to stratification, exploitation, influx of European
colonial agents, money economy, collapse of some states, and existence of
resistance from African resisters. These situations led African to become poor
and underdeveloped countries, hence nowadays they depend for western countries
in order to develop in terms of western aids and grants from IMF and World Bank
hence operations of Neo- colonialism.
Colonialism
created imposition of taxation by the colonialists[14].
From the 1898 head tax was levied on all adult Africans and other third world
countries, for instance in the colony of Tanganyika at least one a year or its
equivalent this amounted to at least a
month wage on white owned mine or two months or more on the owned farm. Later
on other taxes like hut tax, matiti tax, aimed at forcing Africans to provide
cheap labour to the colonialists’ plantation and social services, and to
facilitate colonial administration expenditure. Such heavy taxation led to mass
uprising of the African to oppose colonialism. This taxation and uprising
undermined third world countries economically, politically, and socially hence nowadays they depend on western countries in order to
develop but the given aid and loans operates as neo-colonialism in these third
world countries.
Colonialism
left inadequate social infrastructure at the point of independence especially
transport networks, schools, medical centers and imbalanced regional
development[15].
The infrastructure that were left were inadequate for the internal development,
they were virtually no regional roads or no rail link between one region from
another which would promote internal trade, most of the railway had been
developed around the turn of the century to ease the export of wealth to
developed countries. By the time of independence the few structures that had
been built were badly in need of repair. The repairing needs the aids and loans
also grants from western countries. The dependency of third world countries especially
African countries stimulates the operations of neo-colonialism.
Colonialism
created shortage of political administrators at the point of independence[16].
That lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption,
misdirection of the state and incompetence of some African leaders, very few
African were highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most
of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help
their people. Indeed it has been argued that within some African countries that
the educated elites in the post independent third world countries era had in practice done little more than
replace white colonial rulers with black colonial rulers especially in African
countries. Due to the shortage of administrators the western countries impose
their administrators and the democratization process in order to operate their
political ideology in the third world countries hence neo-colonialism
operations.
Colonialism
created the military structure which was organized in the way that it was not
separated from the political administration that is why most of the independent
African states experienced numerous coups de-tat where by military juntas took
over the political arena[17].
Coup de-tat refers to the sudden military over throw of civilian government by
armed force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military
coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s. The first military coup was in Egypt in
1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958, 1971 and later in
1980 in Zaire 1960 where by Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo
1963, in Nigeria, more than five military coups were conducted in Algeria , in
1971, and in Uganda 1971[18].
These coup d- etats led western countries to intervene their authority in these
countries hence the operations of neo-colonialism. But sometime these countries
seek peaceful power from western countries the issue which stimulate the
neo-colonialism.
Colonialism
created forced labour and forced cropping in third world countries, Africans
were forced to produce cash crops and also forced to provide cheap labour for
instance Kipande System in Kenya[19].
In place where production didn’t exist migrate labor was carried out, the adult
men were to move in the areas of production were only substance wage was
provided, accommodation was provided for only one person, the works family was
there for to remain at home in some far-off rural area and try to grow enough
food to feed themselves. The provision of low wages of African who worked on
Europeans farms, mines and offices the major aim was to break the self-sufficiency
African rural economy. It was no longer for family to feed, clothe and house
itself. And on top of that cash was to be found to pay taxes, regardless of the
family’s income. These situations led the Africans and other third world
dwellers to become poor and underdeveloped. But after independence they tend to
depend in western countries in terms of aid, loans and grants in order to
develop. This dependency leads to the operations of neo-colonialism.
Colonialism
created financial institutions like banks and insurance companies were put in
place, but the fact is that these institutions were more scandalously and
neglectful to the indigenous people the banks like Barclays in case of east
Africa did little to lend the local people. In British East Africa an ordinance
was passed in 1931 native people only lending white settlers and colonial
system[20].
Also schools and hospitals were used as tool to exploit Africans labour to
divide and to spread their culture, on top of that even the money used came
from the Africans themselves not from Britain or France or Belgium tax payers
but from African workers and peasants produced for European capitalism goods
and services of a certain values a small proportion of their effort were
retained by them in the forms wage, cash payment and extremely limited social
services such as were essential for their maintenance of colonialism the rest
went to the various benefactions of the colonial system. These situations
undermined Africans economically, socially, culturally, politically and
ideologically that is why now days they depend on western countries. This
dependence indicates the operations of neo-colonialism in the third world
countries.
Colonialism
introduced the colonial economy by three methods which are preservation,
creation and destruction. In destruction they killed local industries where
traditional industries of colonized societies were destructed, it involved the
use of force to destroy the traditional hand craft , prohibiting people from
producing local goods for example in Zaire craft men had their limbs cut off
when caught producing prohibited articles.
Importation of manufactured goods these were cheap and flooded the local
market therefore competed the local products. This may be illustrated by
Algerian textile industries reports in 1800 say there were 4000 handlooms in
the city of Themcen there were only 105 handlooms[21].
Due to importation of colonial products, traditional industrial died off.
De-industrialization policy-all colonial states did not aim to develop Africans
rather making them producers of raw materials, markets, cheap. So there were no
policies made aiming at establishing industries. All these events during the
colonialism caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in post colonial
independent Africa in the form of aids, loans, importation of experts from
western countries in order to industrialize to compensate the industrialized
process occurred during the colonialism. Also they created land alienation,
money economy, taxation, migrant labour, education policy, religious ideology
which caused exploitation of third world countries’ resources, poverty and
underdevelopment and dependent economy.
Generally,
both conditions created by mercantilism and colonialism in the third world
countries in terms of political, economical, ideological and military methods
but these third world countries should disengage from neo-colonialism by
developing self sustainable and self reliance economies which may reduce the
problem of dependence to the metro pole should develop science and technology
of their own by encouraging science subjects in school land and higher
institutions , research must be conducted often to come out with new ideas,
instead of depending foreign on technology, also should form democracy,
transparence, and accountability in public offices so as to reduce the danger
of corruption, nepotism and embezzlement. To reject western interference in the
political, economical and social affairs of African issues so as to develop an
independent decision and independent mind. Also should avoid civil war and
conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and concentrate on political
solutions to iron out internal dispute instead of applying guns[22].
[1] S. Amin.
(1974). Accumulation on a World scale.
New York: Monthly Review Press, P. 18
[2] Ibid, P. 76
[3] N. R. Bennet
& R. Gobel. (1967). Reconstructing
African. New York: Boston University Press, P. 104
[5] Ibid, P. 53
[6] W. Rodney. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania
Publishing House, P. 74
[7] Ibid, P. 81
[9] F. Buxton.
(1940). The African Slave trade and its
Remedy. London: John Murray, P.234
[11] W. Rodney.
(1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House, P.71
[14] J. D. Clark. (1970). The Pre-History of Africa. London: Thames and Hudson, P. 107
[15]
W. Rodney.
(1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House, P.89
[16] Ibid
[17]T.B .Webster
& A. Boahen. (1968). A History of
West Africa: The Revoluntary Years of West Africa since 1800. London: Longman,
p. 02
[18] Ibid, P. 05
House, p. 111
[20]
Ibid,
P. 105
[21] Ibid, P. 114
[22]
N.
R Bennet & R. Gobel. (1967). Reconstructing
African.New York: Boston University Press, P.137
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