Is globalization a threat or an opportunity to developing countries?

LITERATURE REVIEW

Globalization has often been regarded as the ‘cradle’ of global economic development. This so called ‘world liberator’ however has not escaped criticism as opponents claim that it has been the cause of social evils and rising levels of poverty in developing countries. Due to the nature of globalization and in its bid to open up social, economic and political boundaries currently in place, various functions in different countries have been affected (Whiteford and Wright-St Clair, 2004, p. 353; Bhagwati, 2004, p. 4). The effect of globalization in developing countries has been a subject of debate with different views being put forth about the possible outcome of globalization in developing countries. IMF (2001, p. 1) puts forth that most debates generally focus on whether globalisation is a threat or an opportunity for developing countries.

Globalisation as an opportunity

Economic development

According to Baghwati (2004, p. 28) globalisation can be said to be economically benign; playing the significant role of enhancing economic prosperity and offering a new beacon of hope to developing countries. Globalization is often characterised by a reduction in trade barriers such that there is a free flow of goods, services and labour from one country to another (Gangod Gangopadhyay and Chatterji, 2005, p. 281). Richardson (2000, p. 42) contends with these views and adds that that the effect of this is increased trade which in turn translates into increased income for developing countries. Globalisation therefore serves as an opportunity for developing countries to stabilise their economies by taking advantage of trade. These statements can be considered true because globalisation has greatly reduced barriers between countries through elimination of tariffs and import duties. This is noted by Richardson (2000, p. 2) and Dierks (2001, p. 63).

The rise in globalisation has led to increased capital flow into developing countries’ economies. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) injects a considerable amount of capital into developing countries thus easing their efforts towards economic stability. The developing countries have also benefited in terms of increased financing through loans and grants from developed countries (Aurifeille, 2006, p. 254). It is true that increase in capital inflow serves the purpose of enhancing economic development in a country. What proponents fail to incorporate in their studies however is that net capital inflow could lead to negative effects on trade. Chan and Scarritt (2001, p. 154) note that large capital inflows often result in appreciation of exchange rates and inflationary pressures that impact on the country’s current account. This means that globalisation in an attempt to improve the economy could actually thwart the progress of the economy.

The reduction in trade barriers has led to the promotion of specialisation. This is an economic concept which denotes that countries can concentrate on the production of commodities that they can produce at the least cost (Aurifeille, 2006, p. 252). This commodity can then be traded to earn maximum income for the country while other goods may be imported from other countries. In this regard developing countries should take advantage of globalisation to enhance their income through trading in goods which they can produce most effectively. Such a development not only gives developing countries an opportunity to prosper economically but also to obtain goods that prove expensive to produce in their own countries. Most studies on globalisation contend that globalisation enhances competition as the flow of goods and services between countries becomes easier. According to Corsi (2009, p. 9), competition is an effective way of enhancing innovation and the production of better quality goods.

Technological advancement and knowledge transfer

The transfer of technological know-how has taken an integral part in globalisation. Corsi (2000, p. 9) points out that this has led to increased innovation and better methods of production to developing countries. The direct result of this is increased income and thus appreciation of the countries’ economic development. At the same time, globalisation has led to increased transfer of knowledge and skills to developing countries (OECD, 2000, p. 61). Foreign nationals coming to work in multinational companies add to the knowledge banks of developing countries thus increasing the level of efficiency. Increased knowledge about production methods, economic policies and management techniques present invaluable inputs in developing countries. At this juncture, it would be worthwhile to note that developing countries should use this as an advantage to tap these knowledge and skills because foreign investors are not destined to stay there forever. Training of professionals and development of technology within the country are vital yet they are not effectively addressed in the globalisation literature presented by these authors.

Employment and social welfare

Developing countries have an opportunity to increase their per-capita income following the increase in globalisation. The increase in Foreign Direct Investment following the reduction in foreign investment laws has played a great role in reducing unemployment in developing countries (Welfens, 1999, p. 158). Increased employment levels raise the social welfare of the citizens of developing countries as a result of increased disposable income so that they can comfortably take care of their needs. In consideration to this proposition, increased personal income would be worthwhile for developing countries’ citizens. It is however notable that education in developing countries is not well established. As a result, many multinational companies have to bring in foreign expatriates to take up management positions while local citizens mostly take up positions requiring lower skills. This is barely addressed by Welfens. If developing countries have to benefit from globalisation through increased employment, increased training and education must be provided to the country’s citizens.

Globalization as a threat

Increased inequality

Critics of globalisation propose that globalisation does not negate the needs of developing countries. According to Zedillo (2007, p. 11), globalisation only serves the interests of countries in the developed world such as United States, Europe, Australia and Canada among others. Developing countries are normally left out of major decisions on globalisation even in cases where they are directly involved. According to IMF (2000, p. 6), globalisation serves to amplify the level of inequality between nations. As far as opponents are concerned, developed countries have a larger stake in influencing the world economy to an extent that they influence the economic and social policies in developing countries. Multi-national Corporations have not made the situation any better in developing countries. According to Robert and Lajtha (2002, p. 186), multinational companies take advantage of the cheap labour that can be obtained from developing countries’ citizens. These companies normally provide poor working conditions and do little to upgrade the knowledge of their workers. Consequently, the workers are not in a position to improve their social welfare. It is true that inequality has been on the rise due to globalisation. Studies conducted by the World Economic Outlook indicate that while the average per capita income rose considerably in the 20^th century, the income gap between the developed and developed countries had become wider (IMF, 2000, p. 6). Income distribution was more unequal at the end of the century than at the beginning.

Increased control by developed countries

With increase in globalization, the level of control over developing countries over developing countries has increased. This not only threatens political systems but the social aspects as well. Political leaders in developing countries are under the control of developed countries and the policies taken in developing countries mostly result from pressure by developed countries (Richardson, 2002 p. 2). Zedillo (2007, p. 11) notes that these policies are mostly meant to address particular developing countries’ interests. Developing countries often have to submit because failure to do so could lead to deleterious effects including the withdrawal of financial assistance, FDI and possible trade restrictions through trade embargos. It is notable that even when developing countries receive financial aid from developing countries and international financial organisations, they are not at liberty to spend the finances in the projects that they desire to develop. The projects to be undertaken using the funds are often dictated by the donor countries; most often to promote their own self interests. While the concept of dominance is true, it is a perfect example of the struggle for dominance that characterises societies. According to Joseph (2003, p. 131-133), societies strive to outdo one another politically, socially and politically through development of methodologies to dominate others even if it means using acts that may be considered unethical. To a certain extent therefore, the actions of developing countries cannot entirely be blamed on globalisation.

Threat to the workforce

The ease with which individuals can move from one country to another has been a threat to the level of professional skill and expertise for developing countries. Highly qualified professionals are now moving to developed countries where they are assured of better pay incentives (IMF, 2000, p. 4). The direct result of this is that the developing countries are now experiencing shortage of qualified staff to run local institutions. This is a great threat to the developing countries’ workforce which is bound to decrease as more learned and experienced workers migrate to developed countries. IMF fails to mention the decision to go for higher incentives in foreign countries is a question of rational choice. It is only normal for employees to seek greener pastures and attractive packages in international firms provide them with these.

Increased dependence on developed countries

Reduced trade barriers have led to increased supply of cheap products from developed countries to developing ones. Developed countries are in a position to produce cheaper products due to the availability of advanced technology, capital and economies of scale (Robert and Lajtha, 2002, p. 183). Cheaper goods often lead to unfair competition to companies producing similar goods in developing countries thus putting them out of business. The result of this is that countries now have to depend on imports to furnish their demand for such goods. This increases dependency on developed countries. As far as unfair competition is concerned, this should in fact be a wake up call to developing countries and not a reason to allow the closure of industries. As noted by Whiteford and Wright-St Clair (2004, p. 353), companies should rationalise production so as to ensure that they are as efficient as possible to compete with others in the market. This shows that increased competition could indeed play to the advantage of countries if proper measures are taken to address the country’s shortcomings.

Effect on the socials structure

As far as conservatives are concerned, globalization has been the cause of culture erosion, increase in the level of crime, immorality among other evils. According to Whiteford and Wright-St Clair, 2004, p. 350), the concept of culture erosion has led to wide criticism of globalisation. There is a considerable erosion of cultural identities and boundaries between nations. This is what has been referred to as a borderless world such that leads to the loss of identity as people start behaving in similar ways across the globe. The critics of globalisation under this claim have not taken time to look at the positive side of cultural interaction. Not only does it promote communication across nations thus enhancing interdependency but also eliminates undesirable behaviour such as racial and ethnic segregation hence increasing international cohesiveness. When people interact socially, political and economically, their differences are less visible such that they can effectively work together.

What next for globalisation and developing countries?

From the above review, it is possible to identify that globalisation has both its upsides and downsides. Globalisation is desirable because it draws the world together in a mutually interdependent manner through enhancing trade and breaking political and cultural barriers. Globalisation on the other hand proves to be a threat to developing countries in certain aspects. It is notable however that globalisation is advancing at a fast rate and attempts to stop it would only result in remote results. The question of what next for globalisation then arises. There is a general contention that despite the benefits associated with globalisation; there are downsides of the same which often make globalisation undesirable. Globalisation even then is a phenomenon that is here to stay (Chan and Scarritt, 2002, p. 51). In a way, creation of policies and institutions to reduce the probability of globalisation downsides is what should be adopted in order to make globalisation useful to every country (Bhagwati, 2004, p. 32).

Handling globalisation downsides

The IMF and other international bodies have offered recommendations as to how the developing countries can catch up and to help reduce the negative effects of globalisation. IMF (200, p. 6) cites the presence of factors that hinder the accumulation of human and physical capital and technology advancement as the reasons for slow advancement in poor countries. If these are eliminated through modification of policies, technical and financial assistance, the level of inequality between poor and rich countries could be reduced. In order for developing countries to integrate into the global economy, the following should be addressed: improvement of trade, encouraging foreign direct investment, increase in debt relief for developing countries, macroeconomic stability, increased education and research, structural reforms and outward oriented policies. These developments will not only aid developing countries in benefiting from globalisation but also in enhancing overall development of their economies, political and social systems.

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Reference List

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Bhagwati, J 2004, In Defense of Globalization, Oxford University Press, New York

Chan, SC & Scarritt, JR 2002, Coping with globalization: cross-national patterns in domestic

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Corsi, C 2000, Innovation and market globalization: the position of SME’s, IOS Press,

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Examine the conditions created by the Mercantilism and Colonialism to the operations of neo colonialism in the third world Cs

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amin, S. (1974). Accumulation on a World scale. New York: Monthly Review Press.

 Bennet, N.R & Gobel, R. (1967). Re constructing African.New York: Boston University Press.

Buxton, F. (1940). The African Slave trade and its Remedy. London: John Murray.

Clark, J.D. (1970). The Pre-History of Africa. London: Thames and Hudson.

Crowder, M. (1971). West African Resistance. New York: African Publication Trust.

Rodney, W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing

 House.

Webster, T.B & Boahen, A. (1968). A History of West Africa: The Revoluntary Years of West

  Africa since 1800. London: Longman.

Williams, E. (1964). Capitalism and Slavery. London: Andre Deutsch.

Mercantilism is the first stage of capitalism that was introduced by the European capitalist nations that largely based on primitive accumulation of capital like unequal exchange, plundering, looting and piracy[1]. Periodised during the 15^th century to 18^th century and largely based on oversea trade and commerce where by every European country attracted herself as more as possible like gold, silver, and diamond which resulted into national rivalry among the European nations and protectionism of their economic interest. The characteristics of this mercantilism were protectionism, expansionism, bullionism, colonialism, national unification and militarism.

Colonialism refers to the direct subordination of one country by another country politically, socially, and economically with the aim of exploiting her resources[2]. From about mn1880 European attitude to colonize in Africa changed remarkably and as a result within a space of 20 years nearly the whole of Africa continent was under European rule. To large extent the scramble in Africa initially it was a straight fight between the French and British. Denmark and Holland had withdrawn from Africa in the period of when colonial possession were not very much in favor with European nations in Africa, therefore showed little interest in the expansion there. Portugal she was confined to the small enclave in Portuguese guinea. It was only the intervention of German that made the colonization of Africa was very legible. By 1884 after consolidating her unification German quickly seized not only Togoland but also Cameroon and Tanganyika.

Neo-colonialism refers to the indirect control of the African nation by their former colonial masters socially, politically and eco0nomically[3]. This came about following the attainment of flag independence from the colonial masters. The colonial administrators took steps to ensure that their economic interest would not be jeopardized by the transfer of power. One method was to prepare ground for the creation of puppet leaders by involving leaders of national movement into colonial government. This ensured that emerging leaders were groomed to up hold the existing exploitative relations. Secondly the process of handing over power ensured that neo-colonial relation would follow independence as to grantee the economic interest of the former colonial masters, the construction was made and approved by the colonialist; they made sure that the western model of political authority was followed in the independent country.  The strategic sectors were preserved to the colonial masters like finance and international relation. In fact even in those fields that third world countries were given responsibility the colonial did not vacant. This neo-colonialism rooted from the conditions created by mercantilism and colonialism for the operations in the third world countries in forms of political, economic, ideological and military methods. The following are the conditions created by the mercantilism and colonialism for the operations of Neo- colonialism in the third world countries in Africa and other Asia countries;

Mercantilism created un equal exchange where it characterized by oversea trade which based largely on unequal exchange for instance they took valuable things like gold, diamond, ivory, slaves, timbers, fur from the third world countries  and brought valueless items like mirrors, spices, beads, guns and umbrellas among others[4]. This situation led the third world countries to become poor from that time of mercantilism to date. The events caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in the third world countries in the form of aids, loans, importation of experts from western countries with very high interest rate and realistic conditions this proves hard for African nations to pay back that result into debt burden which is the operations of neo-colonialism nowadays.

National rivalry or militarism during the mercantilism every European nation wanted to dominate trade and lead others this resulted into stiff competition that led even to military confrontation among various nations for example in 1453 Britain fought the French cities were looted in 1650 the Dutch with the British were at  logger head over the cape in south  Africa[5]. The stiff competition among the European countries competing for market, area of investment and cheap labour for their industries led to the colonization in Africa, Asia and Latin America for example the Dutch at the cape of South Africa in 1652 the Portuguese in the Caribbean Island in 1490s. The colonized countries were exploited too much through destruction, preservation and creation of political, economic, social and cultural issues which were done by colonialists.  These events caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in post colonial independent in Africa and other parts in third world countries in the form of aid, loans from Western countries as a way of compensating the effects of mercantilism and colonialism.

Mercantilism created technological stagnation in the third world countries for instance the African cottage industries where by the skilled craft men and artisans were taken as slaves. And also finished European goods flooded the Africans market[6]. Africans   were unable to compete with European goods and on top of that African had no enough time to continue developing their cottage industries like iron smelting, portly, gold mining due to slave raids. The situations caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in the form of aids, loans, sending of European expatriates to work in the third world countries for interest of their countries and then are given higher standard of living than the local people like high wages expensive accommodation, luxurious cars, which makes all the funds given as aid to be spent to the foreigner expatriates.

Deculturalization of the third world countries during the mercantilism, for instance in Africa it led to the destruction of African culture and adoption of European culture African abandoned to practice their culture like traditional ceremonies, wrestling, hunting and others because of constant slave raids little time was left for there to engage in such activities those who were taken as slaves were not allowed to practice their culture instead foreign culture was adopted[7]. During the colonial the  influence of films, books and education syllabus where by the curriculum is developed by the agents of colonialists, the provision of scholarship to Africans to study abroad in their countries, brain washing Africans through ideological  indoctrination nowadays are rooted from the effects of mercantilism and colonialism which operates as Neo-colonialism.

Rise of monopoly companies in Europe where by small companies were swallowed by the big companies so as to monopolize raw materials and market in third world countries[8]. These monopoly companies exploited raw materials and market the situation which led the third world countries to become poorer. This situation created the operations of neo-colonialism in the third world countries as the third world countries they depend much in the form of aid, loans, importation of Europeans countries nowadays because they are poor due to the effects of monopoly companies during the colonial period where now day third world country remain as damping place for cheap European manufactured goods, so that remain de-industrialized and depend on them for consumer goods.

The decline and disruption of third world countries trade for instance in African trade for instance in African trade especially long distance trade and trans Saharan trade which had flourished before the triangular slave trade some cities that had developed due to such trade like Timbuktu, Jenne and Goa also cities like Kilwa , Bagamoyo began to disappear due to the fall of trans Saharan trade. The decline of these cities created the emergence of neo-colonialism because they depend on western countries in order to recover their initial occurred development[9]. Now days they depend politically, socially, culturally, ideologically, and militarily in order to develop that is why  the neo- colonialism operations occurs in these third world countries especially in African countries.

Mercantilism created economic stagnation of the third world countries for instance the underdevelopment of Africa was caused by triangular slave trade many energetic younger men and women were shipped into slavery leaving back the aged and children who were economically non productive thus the economic stagnation of the continent, also led to the decline of agriculture because of lack of human labour[10]. Due to constant slave raids the survival of the horrible trade could not settle peacefully to engage in agriculture because of panic and fear this culminated into severe famine in many parts of the third world countries  especially Western and central Africa. These situations led the third world countries for the sake of their development that is why they get aid and loans from developed countries, hence the operations of neo-colonialism in third world countries especially African countries.

Mercantilism created hunger, famine and diseases in the third world countries which led to the outbreak of epidemics such as small pox, malaria and many others, due to insecurity and lack of enough man power, agriculture was abandoned where famine and hunger became a common place that claimed a number of African lives the worse affected areas where those of west and central Africa where many chiefdoms disappeared gradually[11]. This condition created led the operations of neo-colonialism in the third world countries as we see now days they depend much in the western countries for both political, cultural, social, military and ideology also economic aid in order to cover the gaps created by hunger, famine, and diseases during the mercantile period.

Colonialism created the abolition of slave and slavery in third world countries and slavery especially in Africa and establishes the so called legitimate trade[12]. Slave trade had been abolished long time 1830s, but still some European nations were still reluctant at implement resolution. The Berlin conference also aimed at emphasizing the abolition of slave trade in Africa. And in place monopoly European companies were to be introduced to carry on the so called legitimate trade   where European goods would be traded freely[13]. The legitimate trade led to stratification, exploitation, influx of European colonial agents, money economy, collapse of some states, and existence of resistance from African resisters. These situations led African to become poor and underdeveloped countries, hence nowadays they depend for western countries in order to develop in terms of western aids and grants from IMF and World Bank hence operations of Neo- colonialism.  

Colonialism created imposition of taxation by the colonialists[14]. From the 1898 head tax was levied on all adult Africans and other third world countries, for instance in the colony of Tanganyika at least one a year or its equivalent  this amounted to at least a month wage on white owned mine or two months or more on the owned farm. Later on other taxes like hut tax, matiti tax, aimed at forcing Africans to provide cheap labour to the colonialists’ plantation and social services, and to facilitate colonial administration expenditure. Such heavy taxation led to mass uprising of the African to oppose colonialism. This taxation and uprising undermined third world countries economically, politically, and socially hence nowadays  they depend on western countries in order to develop but the given aid and loans operates as neo-colonialism in these third world countries.

Colonialism left inadequate social infrastructure at the point of independence especially transport networks, schools, medical centers and imbalanced regional development[15]. The infrastructure that were left were inadequate for the internal development, they were virtually no regional roads or no rail link between one region from another which would promote internal trade, most of the railway had been developed around the turn of the century to ease the export of wealth to developed countries. By the time of independence the few structures that had been built were badly in need of repair. The repairing needs the aids and loans also grants from western countries. The dependency of third world countries especially African countries stimulates the operations of neo-colonialism.

Colonialism created shortage of political administrators at the point of independence[16]. That lack of political administrators that has witnessed corruption, misdirection of the state and incompetence of some African leaders, very few African were highly educated to provide quality administrative services, most of the Africans lacked skills of administration and political will to help their people. Indeed it has been argued that within some African countries that the educated elites in the post independent third world countries  era had in practice done little more than replace white colonial rulers with black colonial rulers especially in African countries. Due to the shortage of administrators the western countries impose their administrators and the democratization process in order to operate their political ideology in the third world countries hence neo-colonialism operations.

Colonialism created the military structure which was organized in the way that it was not separated from the political administration that is why most of the independent African states experienced numerous coups de-tat where by military juntas took over the political arena[17]. Coup de-tat refers to the sudden military over throw of civilian government by armed force. The post independent African countries were dominated by military coups, especially in 1960s up to 1970s. The first military coup was in Egypt in 1952, this marked the beginning of other coups in Sudan 1958, 1971 and later in 1980 in Zaire 1960 where by Lumumba was overthrown by Kassa Vumbi, in Togo 1963, in Nigeria, more than five military coups were conducted in Algeria , in 1971, and in Uganda 1971[18]. These coup d- etats led western countries to intervene their authority in these countries hence the operations of neo-colonialism. But sometime these countries seek peaceful power from western countries the issue which stimulate the neo-colonialism.

Colonialism created forced labour and forced cropping in third world countries, Africans were forced to produce cash crops and also forced to provide cheap labour for instance Kipande System in Kenya[19]. In place where production didn’t exist migrate labor was carried out, the adult men were to move in the areas of production were only substance wage was provided, accommodation was provided for only one person, the works family was there for to remain at home in some far-off rural area and try to grow enough food to feed themselves. The provision of low wages of African who worked on Europeans farms, mines and offices the major aim was to break the self-sufficiency African rural economy. It was no longer for family to feed, clothe and house itself. And on top of that cash was to be found to pay taxes, regardless of the family’s income. These situations led the Africans and other third world dwellers to become poor and underdeveloped. But after independence they tend to depend in western countries in terms of aid, loans and grants in order to develop. This dependency leads to the operations of neo-colonialism.

Colonialism created financial institutions like banks and insurance companies were put in place, but the fact is that these institutions were more scandalously and neglectful to the indigenous people the banks like Barclays in case of east Africa did little to lend the local people. In British East Africa an ordinance was passed in 1931 native people only lending white settlers and colonial system[20]. Also schools and hospitals were used as tool to exploit Africans labour to divide and to spread their culture, on top of that even the money used came from the Africans themselves not from Britain or France or Belgium tax payers but from African workers and peasants produced for European capitalism goods and services of a certain values a small proportion of their effort were retained by them in the forms wage, cash payment and extremely limited social services such as were essential for their maintenance of colonialism the rest went to the various benefactions of the colonial system. These situations undermined Africans economically, socially, culturally, politically and ideologically that is why now days they depend on western countries. This dependence indicates the operations of neo-colonialism in the third world countries.

Colonialism introduced the colonial economy by three methods which are preservation, creation and destruction. In destruction they killed local industries where traditional industries of colonized societies were destructed, it involved the use of force to destroy the traditional hand craft , prohibiting people from producing local goods for example in Zaire craft men had their limbs cut off when caught producing prohibited articles.  Importation of manufactured goods these were cheap and flooded the local market therefore competed the local products. This may be illustrated by Algerian textile industries reports in 1800 say there were 4000 handlooms in the city of Themcen there were only 105 handlooms[21]. Due to importation of colonial products, traditional industrial died off. De-industrialization policy-all colonial states did not aim to develop Africans rather making them producers of raw materials, markets, cheap. So there were no policies made aiming at establishing industries. All these events during the colonialism caused the emergence of neo-colonialism in post colonial independent Africa in the form of aids, loans, importation of experts from western countries in order to industrialize to compensate the industrialized process occurred during the colonialism. Also they created land alienation, money economy, taxation, migrant labour, education policy, religious ideology which caused exploitation of third world countries’ resources, poverty and underdevelopment and dependent economy.

Generally, both conditions created by mercantilism and colonialism in the third world countries in terms of political, economical, ideological and military methods but these third world countries should disengage from neo-colonialism by developing self sustainable and self reliance economies which may reduce the problem of dependence to the metro pole should develop science and technology of their own by encouraging science subjects in school land and higher institutions , research must be conducted often to come out with new ideas, instead of depending foreign on technology, also should form democracy, transparence, and accountability in public offices so as to reduce the danger of corruption, nepotism and embezzlement. To reject western interference in the political, economical and social affairs of African issues so as to develop an independent decision and independent mind. Also should avoid civil war and conflicts that bring about economic backwardness and concentrate on political solutions to iron out internal dispute instead of applying guns[22].

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[1] S. Amin. (1974). Accumulation on a World scale. New York: Monthly Review Press, P. 18

[2] Ibid, P. 76

[3] N. R. Bennet & R. Gobel. (1967). Reconstructing African. New York: Boston University Press, P. 104

[4] E. Williams. (1964). Capitalism and Slavery. London: Andre Deutsch, P. 33

[5] Ibid, P. 53

  

[6] W. Rodney. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House, P. 74

[7] Ibid, P. 81

[8]  E. Williams. (1964). Capitalism and Slavery. London: Andre Deutsch, P. 103

[9] F. Buxton. (1940). The African Slave trade and its Remedy. London: John Murray, P.234

[10] Ibid, P.207

[11] W. Rodney. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House, P.71

[12] E. Williams. (1964). Capitalism and Slavery. London: Andre Deutsch, P. 69

[13] Ibid, P.68

[14] J. D.  Clark. (1970). The Pre-History of Africa. London: Thames and Hudson, P. 107

[15] W. Rodney. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing House, P.89

[16] Ibid

[17]T.B .Webster & A. Boahen. (1968). A History of West Africa: The Revoluntary Years of West Africa since 1800. London: Longman, p. 02

 

[18] Ibid, P. 05

[19] W. Rodney. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dar es Salaam: Tanzania Publishing

House, p. 111

[20] Ibid, P. 105

[21] Ibid, P. 114

[22] N. R Bennet & R. Gobel. (1967). Reconstructing African.New York: Boston University Press, P.137