Causes of stigma and discrimination toward HIV/AIDS carriers.

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HIV/AIDS, HIV means human Immune Virus and AIDS means Acquired immune disease syndrome. By definition HIV/AIDS is lack of body immunity.   

Stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS is experience of prejudice. People living with HIV/AIDS face not only medical, HIV stigma as phenomenon was considered to be everywhere HIV/AIDS has been accompanied by stigma this common in Sub-Sahara Africa.

In Africa discrimination and stigma, is among of problem which challenging African societies this because of most of African people have characteristics of selfishness something which become common even in problem like in pandemic diseases such as HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases, means that no one can care about problem of others that’s why the stigma and discrimination still a problem in sub-Sahara Africa.

There are many factors that lead stigma and discrimination as well as other is issues related to that as explained here below.

Wrong beliefs, most African people have wrong beliefs or prejudice as many of them believe in which craft one affected with sexual transmission diseases people when they see one has incurable diseases they one is witched so after realizing that fearness of other members of the community is to avoid to fall under the same disease.

Lack of enough education about HIV/AIDS to many people in Sub-Saharan Africa is a problem also as many people having little knowledge about HIV infections and how to take care infected people the results is stigma and discrimination to people living with HIV/AIDS.

Ignorance of people in most cases among major factor for stigma and discrimination to people living with HIV/AIDS. Because of ignorant of people that’s why the problem of stigma become big day after day in Sub-Sahara Africa as people are conservative they are not ready to adopt change since HIV/AIDS reported in 1980s wonderful enough people still stigmas people living with HIV/AIDS.

People avid cost to take care people living with HIV/AIDS the truth is that to take care people who are living with HIV/AIDS sometimes it needs enough money to insure healthy of effected people example medicines, foods and fruits need money. So because of poverty of people in Africa and other developing countries that’s why people decide to discriminate infected people to avoid cost.

Government is not committed enough to eradicate stigma in the community as matter of facts many governments of Africa include Tanzania are not very much committed to eradicate problem of stigma and discrimination that’s is why still the war against stigma is exist. But if the government have clear strategies against stigma things would be not very much hard as we observe today it, means that even government has it is contribution for the problem to exist.

People think that are less concern on one way or another to take care infected people, by believing that, once a person get infections is matter of laziness and preferring unsafe sexual intercourse so this cause stigmization in the community. Because people withdraw to deal with people living with HIV/AIDS this lead the problem of stigma and discrimination something which is against human rights because everyone has right to live regardless he or she suffering from what.

Some infected people disseminated themselves this also is very common to under developing countries like Tanzania people who are living with HIV are isolate themselves from the community because they have low self esteem compared with their economic status hence this is  another problem for stigma and discrimination of people living with HIV/AIDS.

Classes in the community is another’s factors for stigma and discrimination in natural facts for infected persons who are poor and those who are rich for the poor people’s are the most stigmized by the community but for those who are rich are not very much stigmized because of their status so this may be also a factor for stigma and discrimination of people.

SOLUTION

Provision of education in the community as people given enough education concern HIV/AIDS it is possible the problem of stigma and discrimination against people living will reduced to the maximum or eradicated at all in the community.

Government should set clear strategies to remove stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS this may make people aware as stigma is not accepted and must  understood that is against human rights because every individual has right to live.

Every family should know that this disease HIV/AIDS is like other diseases so there is no need to discriminate people living with HIV rather than to take care and love them that is the good way to treat people living with HIV/AIDS psychologically.  

Organizations like NGOs and other government organizations should support war against stigma and discrimination by providing education and funding small groups which will help to spread massage in every angle of the country so as everyone to be aware that stigma is not acceptable in any community around the world.

CONCLUSION

In Africa particularly Tanzania there are so many problems including HIV/AIDS which bear another problem which is stigma and discrimination, hence the solution is government, private sectors and community should be actively not only to remove stigma but to be committed to make sure that HIV/AIDS is alleviated in our country by change behavior, provide education and running various seminars about effect of HIV/AIDS from national level to family level economically and socially, by doing so will help to remove or eradicate, this problem of HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

chela-kahama.blogspot.comTED 402 -RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGNS

Definitions of Research Methodology and Research Design

Research methodology is a systematically way solve the research problem. Research methodology is a collective term for the structured process of conducting research. It is usually a guideline system for solving research problem, with specific components such as tasks, methods, techniques and tools. Research methodology includes research design, data gathering and data analysis.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.

Research design refers to the structure of an inquiry. It encompasses the methods and procedures employed to conduct scientific research. Thus, research design is the strategy, the plan, and the structure of conducting a research project.

It is also considered as a “blueprint” for research dealing with at least four problems: which questions to study, which data are relevant, which data to collect and how to analyze the results

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

• the means of obtaining information;
• the availability and skills of the researcher and supporting staff, if any;
• the objective of the problem to be studied;
• the nature of the problem to be studied; and
• the availability of time and other resources for the research work.

Research techniques refer to the instruments/tools we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.

Important Concepts Relating to Research Designs

a) Variables and Types of Variables

Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. There are two types of concepts: those that refer to a fixed phenomenon and those that vary in quantity, intensity, or amount (e.g. amount of education). The second type of concept and measures of the concept are variables. A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume different numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see variables everywhere.

For example gender is a variable; it can take two values: male or female.

Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or widowed.

Types of Variables

i) Continuous and Discontinuous variables: Variables have different properties and to these properties we assign numerical values. If the values of a variable can be divided into fractions then we call it a continuous variable. Such a variable can take infinite number of values. Income, temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables may take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Any variable that has a limited number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions, is a discontinuous variable. Such a variable is also called as categorical variable or classificatory variable, or discrete variable. Some variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a property: employed-unemployed or male-female have two values.

ii) Dependent and Independent Variables: Researchers who focus on causal relations usually begin with an effect, and then search for its causes. The independent variable is “independent of” prior causes that act on it, whereas the dependent variable “depends on” the cause. Independent variables have an impact on other variables. When independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable also. In other words, the variance in dependent variable is accounted for by the independent variable.

iii) Moderating variable: A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and the dependent variable. For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X) and the performance of the students (Y).

iv) Intervening variable: A basic causal relationship requires only independent and dependent variable. A third type of variable, the intervening variable, appears in more complex causal relationships. It comes between the independent and dependent variables and shows the link or mechanism between them. The intervening variable acts as a dependent variable with respect to independent variable and acts as an independent variable toward the dependent variable.

b) Research hypothesis

Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.

c) Experimental and control groups

Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’. In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group B an experimental group. If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes, then both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies which include both experimental and control groups.

Key Issues to consider when opting for the Research Design

Issues	Quantitative Research	Qualitative Research
Data	Numeric, operationalized variables, quantifiable coding, statistical analysis, counts, measures	Narrative, descriptive, people’s own words, personal documents, field notes, artifacts, official documents, audio and video tapes, transcripts
Design	Structured, predetermined, initial hypotheses, formal, inflexible, specified in detail in advance of the study; involves intervention, manipulation and control	Evolves over time, flexible, developing hypotheses, general, negotiated, a hunch as to how to proceed, specified only in general terms in advance of the study; involves non-intervention and minimal disturbance
Goal of the paradigm	Explain causes of phenomena through objective measurement and numerical analysis	Understand social phenomena through holistic pictures and depth of understanding
Research Purpose	Prediction, produce causal statements, establish relationships, generalize findings	Gain insight, describe events and patterns, increase understanding of ideas, feelings, beliefs and motives taking context into account
Sample	Randomized, controlled for extraneous variables, size important, intent to select “large”, representative sample in order to generalize results to a population; stratified, control groups, precise control of extraneous variables	Non-representative, small, purposive, intent to select “small”, not necessarily representative sample in order to acquire in-depth understanding; theoretical sampling, based on the context
Words to describe the paradigm	Experimental, hard data, empirical, positivist, statistical, objective	Ethnographic, fieldwork, naturalistic, descriptive, participant observation, soft data, subjective

Categories of research designs

i) Quantitative research designs

• Experiments - Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad categories, i.e, informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.
• Surveys (there are several types of survey) – Generally, surveys aim to describe systematically a situation, phenomenon or an area of interest, factually and accurately.
• Correlational research – Usually indicate strengths and direction of the relationship between variables.

ii) Qualitative research designs

• Case Study – In a case study, one case is selected of particular interest. This case is observed on a regular basis over a period of time. It focuses on developing an in-analysis of single or multiple cases. The case could be one individual, or one organization, or one group, etc. Uses interviews, archival records, observations and artifacts for data collection. Its analysis depends on descriptions, themes, and assertions.
• Exploratory research – The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study.
• Phenomenology - the aim in phenomenological research is to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. Here the researcher is interested in capturing reactions to, perceptions of a particular group to a phenomenon or experience (e.g, a former seminary secondary school boy in a day-mixed high school).
• Ethnography - Combines participant observation and many of the characteristics of non-participant observation. Attempts to obtain a holistic picture of a group, setting, or situation. The emphasis is on documenting or portraying the everyday experiences of individuals. Provides a deep and rich understanding of behavior. Is useful for topics that are not easily quantified. This design is useful for the study of culture of ethnic group, races, tribes, etc.

References:

Borg, R.W and Gall, M.D. (2003). Educational Research: An Introduction. London: Longman

Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education. New York: Routledge Falmer.

Flick, U. (2006). An Introduction to Quantitative Research. London: Sage

Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Singh, Y.K. (2006). Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Delhi: New Age International (P) Limited, Publishers.

Wiersma, W.  and Jurs, S.G. (2009). Research Methods in Education: An Introduction. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.